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EliEMEXTS 


OF 


DOGMATIC  HISTORY, 

BY  WILLI A»I  MUENSCHER.S.T.DNrojs^TV' 

AND   ORDINART   PROFESSOR  OF   THEOLOGY  AT    UABBXma. 


TKANSLAT£I>  FROM  THE  SECOND   EDITION   OF  THE  OKieiHAK 
GXRMAN. 

BY  JAMES  MURDOCK,  D.D. 


NEW-HAVEN, 

PUBLISHED  BY  A.  H.  MALTBT. 

1830. 


STJiJ 


DISTRICT   OF  CONNECTICUT,  SS. 

«<v*^k/v%,%.»/x^  Be  it  remembered,  That  on  the  second  da/ 
\  \^  S.  5  of  Juiy,  in  the  fifty-fourth  year  of  the  Inde- 
^v^/wvx-x^sg  pendence  of  the  United  States  of  America,  James 
MuRDOCK,  of  the  said  District,  hath  depos:ted  in  this  office, 
the  title  of  a  book,  the  right  whereof  he  claims  as  Author, 
in  the  words  following,  to  wit : — 

^'Elements  of  Dogmatic  History.  By  William  Muenscher, 
S.  T.  D.  and  ordinary  Professor  of  Theology  al  Marburg. 
Translated  from  the  second  edition  of  the  Original  German, 
by  James  Murdock,  D.  D." 

In  conformity  to  the  Act  of  Congress  of  the  United  States, 
entitled,  ^^  An  act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  secu- 
ring the  copies  of  Maps,  Charts,  and  Books,  to  the  authors  and 
proprietors  of  such  copies,  during  the  times  therein  mention- 
ed." And  also  to  the  Act,  entitled,  ^^  An  Act  supplementary 
to  an  Act,  entitled,  ^  An  Act  for  the  encouragement  of  learn- 
ing, by  securing  the  copies  of  Maps,  Charts,  and  Books,  to  th« 
Authors  and  Proprietors  of  such  copies  during  the  times  there- 
in mentioned,'  and  extending  the  benefits  thereof  to  the  arts  of 
designing,  engraving,  and  etching  historical  and  other  prints." 
CHA'S  A.  INGERSOLL, 
Clerk  of  the  District  of  Connecticut. 

A  true  copy  of  Record,  examined  and  sealed  by  me, 
CHA  S  A.  INGERSOLL, 
Clerk  of  the  District  of  Connecting. 


BALDWIN    AND    TREADWAY,    PRINT. 


AUTHOR  S    PREFACE. 


This  elementary  work  was  primarily  intended  for  use 
in  the  author's  lectures ;  and  was  calculated  especially  to 
aid  his  hearers.  Yet  it  may  perhaps  be  serviceable  to 
others,  by  presenting  to  them  a  rapid  glance  over  the 
whole  field  of  dogmatic  history.  The  principles  on  which 
it  is  drawn  up,  are  the  same  as  those  followed  by  the  au- 
thor, in  his  Elements  of  Church  History ;  and  as  he  has 
there  explained  those  principles,  in  the  preface,  he  will 
not  repeat  them  here.  Yet  some  few  observations  will  be 
added. 

It  was  his  great  object,  to  give  a  plain,  simple  and 
dense  statement.  Therefore  only  three  periods  of  time 
are  assumed ;  and  the  facts  are  recapitulated  in  so  uncon- 
strained a  manner,  that  uniformity  in  the  mode  of  treating 
the  several  periods  was  intentionally  disregarded.  The 
facts  also,  are  rather  indicated,  than  fully  displayed.  The 
author  flatters  himself  however,  that  the  discerning  will 
perceive  a  fixed  plan,  running  through  the  work  ;  and  will 
understand,  that  a  different  mode  of  treating  the  succes- 
sive periods,  arose  from  the  effort,  to  give  the  exact  mode 
of  thinking  and  reasoning,  in  each.  If  his  aim  to  be  very 
concise,  should  here  and  there  produce  obscurity,  or  in- 
definiteness,  the  oral  instructions  of  the  teacher  must  re- 
move the  former,  and  give  precision  to  the  latter. 

In  the  first  period,  ihe  passages  from  the  fathers,  which 
might  serve  as  vouchers,  are  with  few  exceptions  omitted ; 
and  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  author's  Manual  for 


4  PREFACE. 

them.*  In  the  second  period  also,  the  passages  in  the 
scholastic  writers,  are  but  seldom  pointed  out ;  because 
they  could  be  of  little  service  to  beginners ;  and  because, 
those  who  are  acquainted  with  these  writers,  can  easily 
find  the  passages;  their  systems  having  generally  the  same 
arrangement.  Yet  wherever  the  experienced  would  be 
at  a  loss,  to  determine  on  what  authority  an  assertion  rests, 
the  passage  is  expressly  named.  In  the  third  period,  a 
greater  number  of  citations  was  necessary  :  and  the  au- 
thor confesses,  that  he  has  often  doubted,  whether  too 
many,  or  too  few,  were  introduced.  It  has  always  been 
his  rule,  however,  in  making  the  selection  of  authorities, 
to  regard  the  historical  value,  and  not  the  doctrinal  impor- 
tance of  the  passages. 

The  author  wishes  that  intelligent  judges,  if  they  deem 
this  work  worth  their  examining,  would  acquaint  him 
with  its  defects,  and  thus  facilitate  its  improvement. 


To  this  second  edition,  the  literary  notices  are  subjoin- 
ed, which  the  venerated  author  had  written  in  the  margin 
of  his  copy;  and  likewise,  such  as  the  editor  deemed  ne- 
cessary, in  order  to  bring  down  the  literature  to  the  tim^ 
of  the  publication. 

*  On  the  most  important  sections,  the  translator  has  introduced 
the  principal  references  of  the  Manual  into  this  compendium.  They 
are  distinguished,  by  being  connected  with  the  text  by  means  of  th* 
common  numerals. 


TRANSLATOR'S   PREFACE, 


The  work  here  offered  to  American  theologians,  is  sup- 
posed, to  be  unlike  any  thing,  that  has  ever  appeared  be- 
fore the  English  public.  It  is  an  outline  of  a  general 
history  of  the  christian  faith,  with  copious  references  to 
authorities  and  a'lthors  who  have  treated  on  the  subjects, 

1.  It  is  an  outline  merely;  not  a  full  history.  For  it 
mentions  only  the  goneral  facts  ;  and  states  them,  in  the 
most  concise  manner.  It  was  designed  to  be  the  text 
merely,  on  which  a  lecturer  might  expatiate. 

2.  It  is  a  general  history ;  that  is,  one  that  covers  the 
whole  subject  of  dogmatic  theology,  or  systematic  divinity; 
and  not  the  history  of  one,  or  of  a  few,  particular  doc- 
trines only . 

3.  It  is  purely  a  history.  For  the  author  did  not  de- 
sign, to  discriminate  between  true  and  false  doctrines ;  to 
elucidate,  confirm,  and  recommend  the  former,  and  to 
confute  and  set  a  mark  upon  the  latter.  He  aims  to  be 
the  mere  historian  of  facts  ;  or  to  narrate,  truly  and  can- 
didly, what  doctrines  were  discussed,  and  how  they  were 
stated,  defended  and  attacked,  and  by  whom ;  without 
laboring  to  prepossess  the  reader,  either  for,  or  against,  any 
doctrine.  In  other  words,  he  professes  to  assume  the  at- 
titude of  a  witness  in  a  court,  whose  duty  it  is,  to  state  the 
whole  truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth,  without  regarding 
the  interests  of  either  of  the  litigating  parties;  and  not  tha 
part  of  an  advocate,  whose  office  it  is,  to  defend  the  caus9 

1* 


of  his  client,  in  the  best  manner  the  case  will  admit.     This 
mode  of  composing  dogmatic  histories,  it  is  believed,  will 
be  altogether  new,  to  most  theologians  in  this  country  j 
for,  all  the  histories  written  previously  to  the  middle  of  the 
last  century,  and  all  written  since,  in  the  English  language, 
whether  they  were  histories  of  particular  doctrines,  as 
those  of  the  trinity,  infant  baptism,  the  Lord's  supper, 
predestination,  free  grace,  &,c.  or  histories  of  all  the  doc- 
trines in  a  system  of  theology,  were  manifestly  written  for 
the  express  purpose,  either  of  confirming,  or  confuting,  a 
particular  creed  :  and  of  course,  the  writers,  not  only 
collect  all  the  testimonies  they  can,  on  one  side  of  the 
subject,  and   make  the  most  of  them,  and  enumerate 
some  on  the  opposite  side,  placing  them  in  the  most  un- 
favorable light;  but  they  resort  to  all  the  arts  of  rhetoric 
and  logic,  to  persuade  their  readers  to  adopt  the  opinions 
they  defend,   and  to  reject  those   which  they  condemn. 
Such  historians  are,  as  Uu\y  polemic  writers,  as  if  they  had 
chosen  other  than  historical  arguments,  with  which  to  ac- 
complish their  party  purposes.     Of  this  character  is  Dr. 
Priestley's  History  of  the  Corruptions  of  Christianity  ; 
and  also  the  histories  of  the  Trinity,  by  Christopher  Sau- 
dis, Dr.  Alex,  Bishop  Bull,  and  others ;  the  histories  of 
infant  baptism,  by  Wall,   Gale,  Robertson  &£c.  and  nu- 
merous other  dogmatic  histories. 

4.  This  work  is  a  history  of  the  faith  of  such  as  have 
borne  the  christian  name,  or  of  their  speculative  belief, 
their  dogmatic  theology ;  and  not  of  their  practical  theo- 
logy, their  conduct,  their  piety, their  rites  of  worship,  their 
ecclesiastical  polity,  he.     And 

5.  It  contains  references  to  the  principal  sources  of  evi- 


TRANSLATOR  S     PREFACE,  T 

dence  for  the  facts  stated,  and  lists  of  modern  writers  of 
different  communities,  who  may  be  consulted  on  the  seve- 
ral subjects. 

In  the  selection  of  the  facts  to  be  narrated,  and  in  his 
references  to  authors,  the  writer  of  this  work,  had  in  view 
the  young  theologians  of  Germany;  for  whose  use  the 
book  was  intended.  An  American  student  would  be 
better  pleased  with  the  work,  had  the  author  been  more 
full  and  particular,  on  the  doctrines  most  controverted  in 
this  country ;  and  if  he  had  developed  farther  the  doc- 
trinal views  and  arguments  of  the  English,  Scotch,  and 
American  divines;  and  made  more  references  to  their  wri- 
tings. Yet  the  translator  has  not  deemed  it  expedient, 
to  enlarge  the  work,  by  additions  of  this  nature,  except 
by  a  very  few  references.  Nor  has  he  curtailed  the  nu- 
merous references  to  German  writers  ;  for  to  those  who 
make  no  use  of  them,  they  can  do  no  harm ;  and  to  others, 
they  may  at  least  serve  to  show,  what  subjects  have  enga- 
ged most  attention  in  Germany,  and  how  the  theologians 
of  that  country,  range  themselves  on  the  different  sides  of 
most  questions  there  discussed.  By  pursuing  this  course, 
and  giving  a  plain  translation  of  the  original,  he  has  pre- 
sented the  English  reader,  with  the  entire  work  of  Dr. 
Miinscher,  as  near  as  possible  in  its  original  form. 

The  author  of  this  work.  Dr.  William  Muenscher, 
was  born  at  Hersfeld,  on  the  11th  of  March  1766;  be- 
came a  stated  preacher,  in  the  cathedral  church  in  his 
native  place,  till  the  age  of  26,  when  he  was  made  Pro- 
fessor in  ordinary,  in  the  university  of  Marburg  in  Hesse- 
Cassel,  and  consistorial  councillor  there,  for  22  years,  or 
till  his  death,  28th  of  July,  1814.  He  composed  the 
preface  to  a  popular  edition   of  Luther's  bible ;  and  a 


volume  of  printed  sermons,  which  are  said  to  be  char- 
acterized by  their  religious  fervor,  and  by  the  constant 
and  happy  use  made  of  the  holy  scriptures.  He  was 
also  the  principal  conductor  of  a  journal,  devoted  to  the 
interests  of  schools  and  religion  :  but  his  greatest  and 
most  noted  work,  was  his  Manual  of  Dogmatic  Histo- 
ry, in  IV.  volumes  8vo.  extending  over  the  first  six  cen- 
turies. Beside  these,  he  composed  an  Elementary  Church 
History,  and  the  work  here  presented  to  the  public.  Of 
his  large  work,  C.  F.  L.  Simon,  in  his  Continuation  of 
Noesselt's  Guide  to  the  Literature  of  Theology,  says, 
(Sec.  299.)  "  the  author  has  hnppily  combined  the  chro- 
nological order,  with  that  of  the  relations  of  things ;  and 
the  whole  work  is  distinguished,  alike,  for  the  persevering, 
learned,  and  critical  industry,  manifested  in  collecting 
the  materials;  and  for  the  solidity  and  independence  of 
judgment,  with  which  they  are  methodically  arranged, 
and  agreeably  expressed.'"  And  he  adds :  "  the  same 
commendation  is  due  to  the  author's  Elements  of  Dog- 
matic history."  Brettschneider,  in  his  Entwickelung 
der  Dogmatik,  p.  99,  ed.  2d,  says  of  the  Manual :  "  It  is 
to  be  regarded  as  (haupiwerk)  the  best  work  on  the  sub- 
ject." The  Elements,  notwithstanding  it  had  to  contend 
with  several  rival  works,  has,  since  its  first  appearance  in 
1811,  gone  through  three  editions  in  Germany,  without 
alteration, — two  of  them  since  the  author's  death;  and  it  is 
still  in  high  reputation,  in  that  country. 

The  theological  sentiments  of  Dr.  Muenscber,  the 
translator  regrets,  that  he  is  not  able  definitely  to  state ; 
since  a  knowledge  of  them,  might  serve  to  show,  where, 
and  how,  the  author's  prepossessions  were  most  likely  to 
mislead  him.     In  several  passages  of  this  work,  as  well 


I 


as  of  the  Manual,  the  translator  thought  he  discovered 
indications  of  much  laxer  views  in  theology,  than  his  own. 
Yet  he  supposes.  Dr.  Miinscher  was  classed,  by  his  coun- 
trymen, with  Michaelis,  Doederlein,  Planck,  and  others; 
who  stood  on  middle  ground,  between  the  ancient,  pure 
Lutheranism,  and  the  modern  neology  of  Germany.  Af- 
ter all,  the  private  opinions,  or  the  commendations  and 
censures  of  the  writer,  which  occasionally  escape  from 
him  unconsciously,  ought  not  to  influence  the  reader.  It 
is  his  facts,  and  his  arguments  only,  that  deserve  regard. 
And  these,  he  is  supposed  to  state,  with  as  much  fidelity, 
and  impartiality,  as  reasonably  can  be  expected,  from  an 
able  and  honest  man,  who  felt  his  reputation  to  be  staked 
on  the  correctness  of  his  narration. 
New-Haven,  June  1,  1830. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 


Preface,         *..... 

3 

Translator's  Preface,          .            .            4            * 

.       5 

Introduction,  p.  17 — 23. 

k'ec.  1.  Doctrines,      ..... 

17 

2.  Changes  in  doctrines, 

.     17 

3.  Dogmatic  History,    .             .            .            « 

18 

4.  Its  use,      ..... 

.     18 

5.  Its  sources,    .             .             .             ,             * 

19 

6.  Its  laws, 

.     19 

7.  Its  literature,             .... 

20 

8.  Its  form  or  method,           .             . 

.     22 

First  Period.     The  early  ages.  A.  D.  1-600.  p.  2A 

1-87. 

Part  I.     The  general  history,     p.  24-33. 

9.  Jesus  Christ,      .... 

24 

10.  The  Apostles,           .             .             . 

25 

n.  The  early  Christians,     . 

2S 

12.  The  church  and  its  creed,    . 

26 

13.  The  received  theology,              4 

'2Q 

14.  Estimation  of  the  Bible, 

27 

15.  Use  of  the  Bible, 

27 

16.  Tradition,     ..... 

28 

17.  Philosophy,        .... 

29 

18.  Theologians,             .... 

SO 

19.  Origen,              .             .            .            .             . 

30 

20.  Establishment  of  Christianity, 

31 

21.  Religious  controversies. 

31 

22.  Systems  of  theology, 

32 

23.  Decline  of  theological  learning, 

32 

Part  II.     History  of  particular  doctrines,  p.  33- 

87. 

Chap.  I.     The  kingdom  of  Christ,     p.  33-41. 

J4.  Origin  of  the  idea  of  it, 

33 

25.  Chiliasm,            .... 

34 

26.  Last  struggles  of  chiliasm, 

34 

27.  Resurrection  connected  with  chiliasm, 

35 

28.  This  gross  theory  opposed, 

36 

29.  Subsequent  history  of  the  doctrine, 

36 

12  CONTENTS. 

Page, 

SO.  Intormediate  state,      ....  37 

31.  Moditications  of  the  doctrine,                 .  .         38 

32.  Purgatory  fully  established,              .             .  38 

33.  Hell  and  the  damned,                 .             .  .         3» 

34.  The  church,              ....  40 

35.  Its  unity,            .             .             .             .  .41 

36.  Marks  of  the  true  church,                .             .  41 

Chap.  II.     Doctrine  of  Angels  and  Devils,     p.  42-45. 

37.  Existence  of  Angels,                  .             .  .45 

38.  Their  offices,            ....  42 

39.  Their  condition,              .             .             .  .43 

40.  Invocation  of  them,              ...  43 

41.  Apostacy  of  Angels,       .             .             .  .         44 

42.  Power  of  evil  spirits,             ...  44 

43.  Their  prospects,            .             .             .  .44 

Chap.  III.     The  truth  of  Christianity,     p.  45-48. 

44.  Introduction,            .             .             .             .  45 

45.  Attacks  on  Pagans,        .             .             .  .46 

46.  Evidences  of  Christianity,                 .             .  46 

47.  Prophecy  and  Miracles,            .             .  .46 

48.  Other  external  proofs,          ...  47 

49.  Objections  to  Christianity,        .             .  .47 

50.  Objections  to  its  nature  and  its  sacred  books,  48 

61.  Objections  to  the  conduct  and  influence  of  Christ- 

ians,        .....  48 

62.  Neglect  of  Apologetics,  .  .  .48 

Chap.  IV.     Being  and  character  of  God.     p.  47-52. 

63.  Occasion  for  attending  to  the  subject,  .  49 

54.  Proof  of  the  existence  of  a  God,  .  .         49 

55.  The  unity  of  God,  ...  60 

56.  The  nature  of  God,       .  .  .  .50 

67.  The  attributes  of  God,         ...  51 

68.  Creation,  .  .  .  .  .61 

59.  The  design  of  creation,       ...  51 

60.  Providence,       .....         62 

61.  Theodicee,  or  origin  of  evil,  i  .  52 

Chap.  V.     The  Trinity,     p.  53-63. 

62.  General  belief  of  Christians,  .  .         64 

63.  The  Unitarians,        ....  64 

64.  The  Trinitarians,  .  .  .  .66 

65.  Source  of  their  theory,        .  .  .56 

66.  Irenaeus  and  Tertullian,  .  .  .56 

67.  Clement  and  Origen,  .  .  .  66 


CONTENTS. 


15 


68.  Dionysius  Alex,  and  Dionysius  Rom. 

69.  Rise  of  the  Arian  controversy, 

70.  The  Council  of  Nice, 

71.  Consequences  of  the  Council, 

72.  Arian  parties, 

73.  Marcellus  and  Photinus, 

74.  Athanasian  system, 

75.  Triumph  of  this  doctrine, 

76.  Fuller  statement  of  the  doctrine, 

77.  Subsequent  statements. 

Chap.  VI.     The  person  of  Christ,     p.  63-67. 

78.  First  germs  of  the  doctrine, 

79.  Its  developement, 

80.  The  natures  of  Christ, 

81.  Nestorius  and  Cyril, 

82.  Council  of  Ephesus, 

83.  Councils  of  Ephesus  and  Chalcedon, 

84.  Subsequent  contests. 
Chap.  VII.     Redemption  by  Jesus  Christ,     p.  68- 

85.  General  doctrine  of  the  church, 

86.  The  nature  of  man, 

87.  Endowments  of  man, 

88.  Origin  and  propagation  of  sin,  Greek  Fathers 

89.  Do.  Latin  Fathers,  before  Augustine, 

90.  Early  doctrine  concerning  grace, 

91.  Controversy  of  Augustine  with  Pelagius, 

92.  The  first  point;  Sin, 

93.  Second  point;  Grace  and  free  will, 

94.  Third  point;  Election, 

95.  History  of  the  doctrine,  after  Augustine, 

96.  What  Chsist  has  done  for  men, 

97.  Effects  of  Christ's  death, 

98.  Forgiveness  of  sin. 

Chap.  VIII.     The  Sacraments,     p.  82-87. 

99.  Baptism,  .... 

100.  Infant  Baptism,        .... 

101.  Baptism  of  heretics, 

102.  Lord's  Supper,         .... 

103.  Lord's  Supper  as  a  sacrifice, 

104.  Presence  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist, 

105.  On  the  Sacraments  in  general, 

Second  Period.     Middle  ages.     A.  D.  600—1517.  p. 
Part  I.    The  general  history,  p.  88-96. 


Page, 
bl 
58 
58 
59 
59 
60 
60 
60 
61 
62 


82. 


82 
83 
84 
84 
85 
86 
86 

88-128. 


14 


CONTENTS. 


106.  Theology  of  the  Greeks,  at  the  beginning  of  the 

period,     ,_  . 

107.  John  Damascenus, 

108.  Greek  Theology,  subsequently, 
105.  State  of  theology  among  the  Latins, 

110.  Age  of  Charlemagne, 

111.  Preparatory  steps  to  scholastic  theology, 

112.  Anselm  and  Hildebert, 

113.  Contest  respecting  philosophic  theology, 

114.  Further  advances  of  scholastic  theology, 

115.  Influence  of  the  Monastic  Orders  on  scholastic 

theology, 

116.  The  later  Scholastics, 

117.  Causes  of  the  downfall  of  scholastic  theology, 
Part  II.     History  of  particular  doctrines,    p.  97-128, 
Chap.  I.     CuUivation  of  doctrines  previously  defined. 

p.  97-104. 

118.  The  being  of  God, 

119.  The  nature  of  God, 

120.  The  Trinity, 

121.  Creation  and  Angels, 

122.  Doctrine  of  Providence, 

123.  Person  of  Christ, 

124.  Man,  particularly  his  soul, 

125.  Resurrection  and  general  judgment, 

126.  Truth  of  Christianity, 

127.  The  holy  Scriptures, 

Chap.  II.     Developement  of  doctrines  not  before 
defined,     p.  104-128. 

128.  Procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 

129.  Doctrine  of  sin  and  grace,  jmd  the  kindred  doc- 

trines; in  the  Greek  church, 

130.  In  the  Latin  church, 

131.  Doctrine  of  the  Scholastics,  concerning  sin, 

132.  Sinless  conception  of  Mary, 

133.  Doctrine  concerning  grace, 

134.  Predestination, 

135.  Redemption  by  Christ, 

136.  Faith  and  good  works, 

137.  Adoration  of  saints  and  of  Mary, 

138.  The  Sacraments,  in  general , 

139.  Baptism, 

140.  Confirmation, 

141.  Lord's  Supper, 

142.  Transmutation  in  the  Lord's  Supper, 

143.  Contet  with  Berengarius, 


Page, 


88 
88 
89 
89 
90 
90 
92 
92 
93 

94 
96 
96 


97 

98 

98 

99 

99 

100 

101 

102 

102 

103 


104 

105 
105 
106 
107 
108 
109 
110 
111 
111 
112 
114 
115 
116 
116 

lis 


CONTENTS.  15 

Page, 

144.  Scholastics  and  Canonists,                .                 .  119 

145.  Further  determinations,            .                 .  120 

146.  Consequences  ofthe  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  121 

147.  The  Mass,                          .                 .                 .  121 

148.  Sacrament  of  Penance,             .                .  122 

149.  Remission  of  satisfaction.     Indulgences,  124 

150.  Sacrament  of  extreme  unction,                  .  125 

151.  Sacrament  of  ordination,                   .                 .  126 

152.  Sacrament  of  marriage,            .                 .  126 

153.  State  of  departed  souls,                     .                 .  127 

154.  Doctrine  concerning  the  church,              .  128 

Third  Period.     Modern  times,  A.  D.  1517—1800. 
p.  129-203. 

Part  I.     General  view  of  the  changes  in  doctrinal 
theology,     p.   129-151. 

155.  Causes  of  new  modifications  in  theology,  12^ 

156.  Introduction  of  the  refoimation,                .  130 

157.  Protestant  systems  of  theology,                        .  131 

158.  Reaction  upon  the  Catholic  church,          .  132 

159.  Completion  ofthe  Lutheran  system  of  faith,  133 

160.  Variation^  of  doctrine  in  the  Reformed  church,  135 

161.  Attempts  of  the  Reformed  to  improve  their  the- 

ology,                   .                .                .  135 

162.  Achievements  of  Spener,  in  regard  to  the  Luther- 

an theology,                   .                 .                 .  137 

163.  Influence  of  the  Wolfian  philosophy,  138 

164.  Protestant  theology,  out  of  Germany,       .  140 

165.  New  formation  of  the  Protestant  theology,  141 

166.  Influence  of  the  Kantean  philosophy,              .  145 

167.  The  theology  of  other  churches,               .  149 

Part  II.     History  of  particular  doctrines,     p.  1  SI- 
SOS. 

Chap.  I.     The  foundations  of  all  religion,  and  of  the 
Christian  religion  in  particular.  151-166. 

168.  Doctrine  concerning  God,        .                .  15I 

169.  More  recent  history  of  this  doctrine,             .  .  153 

170.  Doctrine  of  Providence,            .                .  154 

171.  Immortality  of  the  soul,                    .                 .  156 

172.  Belief  in  revelation,                  .                .  157 

173.  Most  recent  history  of  belief  in  Revelation,  160 

174.  Miracles  and  prophecy,             .                .  161 

175.  Views  concerning  the  holy  Scriptures,  164 

176.  Recent  views  in  Germany,              .           .     ,  165 


16 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 
Chap.  II.     Views  and  explanations  of  diverse  Christ- 
ian doctrines,  p.  166-203. 

177.  Various  first  principles  of  Christianity,  166 

178.  Opinions  on  the  importance  of  religious  doctrines,  168 

179.  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  .  .         169 

180.  Views  of  modern  German  divines,  .  171 

181.  Doctrine  of  creation,  .  .         172 

182.  Doctrine  concerning  Angels,  .  173 

183.  Of  the  person  of  Christ,  .  .174 

184.  Doctrine  concerning  the  first  men,  ,  175 

185.  Hereditary  sin,  .  .  .         176 

186.  Grace  and  predestination,  .  178 

187.  Continuation,  .  .  .179 

188.  Further  disagreement  in  the  Reformed  churches, 

respecting  these  doctrines,                   .  180 

189.  History  of  these  doctrines  in  the  Catholic  church,  181 

190.  Influences  of  the  word  of  God,        .  .183 

191.  Most  recent  form  of  the  doctrine  of  grace,  184 

192.  Redemption  by  Christ,             .                 .  184 

193.  Continuation,                     .                 .  .         185 

194.  Justification,              .                 .                 .  187 

195.  Continuation,                     .                 .  .         188 

196.  Faith  and  works,                        .                 .  .189 

197.  Penance,                            .                 .  .190 

198.  The  Sacraments,                       .                .  191 

199.  Baptism,                             .                 .  .         192 

200.  Common  doctrine  of  the  Protestants,  respecting 

the  Lord's  supper,  .  .  194 

20 1 .  Dissension  among  Protestants  d  uring  Luther's  life,  1 95 

202.  Progress  of  the  controversy  after  Luther's  death,  196 

203.  Later  history  of  this  doctrine,         .  .  197 

204.  The  church,  ...  198 

205.  State  of  departed  souls,  .  .  199 

206.  Resurrection  and  general  judgment,        .  201 

207.  Salvation  and  damnation,  .  .  202 


INTRODUCTION. 


Writers,  Christian  Fr,  Walch,  Thoughts  on  the  histo- 
ry of  rehgious  opinions;  (in  German)  2d  edition.  <jot- 
tingen,  1764, 8vo. 

Ckr.  Fried.  Roesleri  Diss,  de  Theoria  Historias  Dogma- 
turn.     Tubing.  P.  I.  1796.     P.  II.  1798.  4to. 

Ideas  on  the  extent  and  mode  of  treating  Dogmatical  Histo- 
ry, (in  German)  by  W,  K*  L.  Ziegler — in  Gabler^s 
Neuesten  Theol.  Journal.     AD.  1798,  vol.  II.  p.  325 — 58. 

Sec.  I.  Doctrines, 
By  the  word  doctrines^  the  ancient  writers  understood 
sometimes,  religious  truths  in  general,  and  sometimes,  the 
theoretical  principles  of  the  christian  religion,  in  opposi- 
tion to  its  practical  precepts.  The  word  has  also  been  us- 
ed to  denote  explanations  and  opinions  respecting  reli- 
gious truths.  The  modern  use  of  the  term,  makes  it 
equivalent  to  articles  of  faith.  Received  doctrines  (kir- 
chliche  Dogmen)  are  those  which  are  admitted  by  some 
entire  christian  community. 

References,  Suicer,  Thesaur.  Eccles.  torn.  I.  p.  932. 
Cyrilli  Hieros,  Catech.  IV.  Sec.  2.  p.  52.  Gregorii 
Nyss,  Ep.Vl.  in  Gallandi  Bibliotheca  Patrum,  torn.  VI. 
p.  631.  A  peculiar  use  of  the  word  occurs  in  Basil, 
0pp.  torn.  III.  p.  54—56. 

Sec.  2.  Changes  in  regard  to  Doctrines, 
The  christian  doctrines  have  undergone  innumerable 
changes,  since  their  first  appearance ;  in  regard  to  the 
matter  of  them,  the  manner  of  stating  and  defending 
them,  the  degree  of  importance  attached  to  them,  and 
the  arrangement  and  exhibition  of  them.  The  causes  of 
3 


18  muenscher's   elements 

these  changes  are  to  be  traced  to  the  diversities  of  ge- 
nius and  education  among  christians,  especially  among 
the  teachers,  and  to  the  peculiar  circumstances  and  ne- 
cessities of  the  church  in  different  ages.  The  constitu- 
tion of  the  church,  the  freedom  of  opinion,  and  the  state 
of  learning,  have  ever  had  great  influence  in  shaping  arti- 
cles of  faith. 

Sec.  3.  Dogmatic  History. 
The  christian  faith,  like  every  other  branch  of  know- 
ledge, has  both  its  external  and  its  internal  history.  The 
former,  which  respects  the  mode  of  arranging  and  ex- 
hibiting articles  of  faith,  is  called  the  History  of  Uog- 
matics ;  the  latter,  which  states  the  revolutions  in  the  va- 
rious articles  of  faith,  is  called  Dogmatic  History,  Both, 
however,  so  run  into  each  other,  that  it  may  be  expedient 
to  combine  them.  A  dogmatic  history  may  either  em- 
brace all  ages  and  all  articles  of  faith,  or  may  be  limited 
in  one  or  both  respects.  Strict  impartiality  and  truth, 
and  a  judicious  selection  and  instructive  development  of 
facts,  must  ever  be  its  first  and  most  imperious  laws. 

Note.  It  is  a  question,  whether  dogmatic  histor}^  should 
detail  the  doctrines  inctdcated  by  Christ  and  the  Apos- 
tles, or  confine  itself  to  the  received  doctrines  of  the 
church. 

Sec.  4.  Value  of  dogmatic  history. 
The  uses  of  dogmatic  history  are,  that  it  is  indispensa- 
ble, to  the  attainment  of  a  thorough  knowledge  and  cor- 
rect judgment  of  systematic  theology;  that  it  teaches  us 
to  distinguish  the  original  Christianity,  from  the  subsequent 
spurious  additions  and  corruptions;  that  it  serves  to  awa- 
ken and  animate  a  spirit  of  inquiry ;  that  it  promotes  libe- 
rality, moderation,  and  independence  ;  and  that  it  warns 
us  against  the  perversions  of  Christianity  in  the  past  ages. 
It  likewise  affords  the  mind  high  intellectual  pleasure,  to 
contemplate  in  the  mirror  of  history,  the  efforts  and  strug- 
gles of  men  after  clearness  and  solidity  of  views  on  reli- 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY. 


19 


gious  subjects;  in  which  both  the  dependence  and  the 
the  independence  of  the  mind  are  clearly  seen. 

References.     J,  A,  Ernesti  Prolusio  de  Theologise  histo- 
rica3  et  dogmatic 36  conjungendae  necessitate.     Lips.  1759. 
j.,       8vo.  and  in  hisOpuscul.  Theol.  ed.  Lips.  1792.  8vo. 
f-  Lud.  Wachleri,  Prolusio  de  theologia  et  historia  dogma- 
tum  emendanda.     Rintel,   1794.  4to. 
Ckr.  Fried,  lllgen,  The  value  of  christian  dogmatic  histo- 
ry, (in  German.)     Lips.   1817.    8vo. 

Sec.  5.  Sources. 
The  sources,  from  which  dogmatic  history  must  be 
drawn,  are  not  indeed  equally  copious  and  lucid  in  every 
period,  yet  they  are  considerably  numerous  and  rich  in 
all  the  periods.  Among  them,  the  public  confessions  of 
faith,  the  decrees  and  acts  of  ecclesiastical  councils,  the 
writings  of  persons  in  high  authority  in  the  church,  and 
the  public  liturgies,  hold  the  first  rank ;  because  they  are 
public  documents.  Next  to  them,  must  be  ranked  the 
writings  of  the  christian  teachers  in  general,  yet  with  dis- 
crimination, for  all  are  not  of  equal  authority ;  likewise 
the  accounts  of  the  credible  historians,  are  important  and 
useful. 

Reference.  C.  W.Fr.WalcK's  critical  Account  of  the  Sour- 
ces of  church  history ;  (in  German,)  Lips.  1770.  8vo. 
is  applicable  to  dogmatic  history. 

Sec.  6.     Use  to  he  made  of  these  sources. 

To  deduce  history  from  these  sources,  requires  exten- 
sive knowledge  and  great  care.  A  discerning  criticism 
must  discriminate  the  spurious  works  from  the  genuine  ; 
and  must  correct  the  falsified  and  incorrect  passages, 
which  occur  in  works  that  are  for  the  most  part  genuine. 
A  good  knowledge  of  languages,  and  dexterity  in  in- 
%  terpreting,  must  disclose  the  true  meaning  of  different  ac- 
counts. A  sound  judgment  must,  without  partiality,  es- 
timate the  value  of  all  statements ;  exclude  fables  and 
groundless  conjectures ;  and  induce  caution,  not  to  infer 


20  muenscher's  elements 

the  opinions  of  a  writer  from  insolated  passages  of  his 
works,  nor  to  bend  his  words  to  a  conformity  with  our 
own  system  of  belief;  nor  to  confound  the  opinions  of  a 
particular  writer,  with  the  general  creed  of  the  church. 
Civil  and  ecclesiastical  history,  and  the  history  of  the 
sciences,  particularly  of  philosophy,  and  even  scientific 
theology  itself,  are  necessary  auodliaries  to  the  study  of 
dogmatic  history. 

References.  J.  DailU^  de  usu  Patrum  ad  definienda  reli- 
gionis  capita  quae  hodic  sunt  controversa.  I.  II.  Ge- 
neva, 1686.  4to.  Matth,  Scrivener,  Apologia  pro  S. 
ecclesiae  Patribus  adversus  J.  Dallaeum.  Lond,  1672. 

Sec.  7.  Literature  of  dogmatic  history. 
In  former  times  dogmatic  history  was  either  neglected, 
or  occasionally  touched  upon,  in  treatises  on  theology  and 
in  ecclesiastical  histories ;  but  was  used  almost  exclusively 
for  polemical  purposes.  John  Solomon  Semler  was  the 
man,  who  especially  awakened  attention  to  its  importance ; 
and  he  wrote  on  some  parts  of  it,  with  accumen  and  inde- 
pendence. Afterwards  others  labored  to  advance  this 
branch  of  history. 

MST    OF   WORKS   ON   THE   SUBJECT. 

I.  Works  embracing  the  whole  compass  of  dogmatic  histo- 
ry ;  or  commenced  with  that  design. 

A.  Works  by  Catholics. 

Dion.  Petavii,  Opus  de  theologicis  dogmatibus.  Paris, 
1644—1660.  V.  tomi,  Fol.  with  notes  by  Theophilus  Ale- 
thinus  (John  le  Clerc)  Antw.  (Amstel.)  1700.  VI. 
tomi,  Fol. 

Dogmata  theologica,  authore  Ludov.  Thomassino.  Paris, 
1684-^89.111.  vol.  Fol. 

Doctrina  et  Disciplina  ecclesise  ex  ipsis  verbis  sacrorum 
codicum,  conciliorum,  Patrum  et  veterum  genuinorum 
monumentorum  secundum  seriem  temporis  digesta  et  ex- 
posita,  studio  et  opera  R.  P.  Ludovid  Dumesnil.  Tom.  I. 
—IV.  Colon.  1730,  Fol. 

B.  Works  by  Protestants. 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  21 

lo  Forbesii  a  Corse,  Instructiones  historico-theologica  de 
doctrina  Christiana.  Amstel.  1702.  Arnoldi  Montanh 
Forbesius  contractus,  sive  compendium  Instructionum 
historico-theolcgicum — Forbesii.  Amstel.  8vo. 

Manual  of  christian  dogmatic  history,  (in  German,)  by  W. 
Milnscher,  Vol.  1.  and  II.  ed.  3d.  Marpurg,  1817— IS.vol. 
III.  ed.  2d.  ibid.  1818.     vol.  IV.  ibid.  1809. 

Elements  of  christian  dogmatic  history,  (in  German,)  by  John 
Chr.  Wil.  Augusti.     Lips.  1805.  8vo. 

Manual  of  christian  dogmatic  history,  (Danish,)  by  F,  Mun- 
Ur ;  (German,)  by  J.  P.  G,  Ewers.  II.  vol.  8vo.  Got- 
tingen,  1802—04. 
C.  Works  by  Unitarians. 

History  of  the  corruptions  of  Christianity,  by  Joseph  Priest- 
ley, LL.  D.  3d  ed.  Boston,  1797.     11.  vols.  12mo. 

II.  Works  on  the  history  of  Dogmatics. 

/.  S.  Semler\9  historical  Introduction  to  theology  ;  (in  Ger- 
man,) prefixed  to  S.  J.  Baumgarten's  evangelischer  Glau- 
benslehre.     Halle,   1759—60.     III.  vol.  4to. 

Essay  of  a  History  of  the  various  methods  of  teaching  the 
articles  of  the  christian  faith,  and  of  the  most  noticeable 
systems  and  compendiums  of  theology ;  (in  German,) 
by  Ch.  Gottl.  Heinrich.     Lips.  1790. 

Full  instructions  in  the  christian  faith;  (in  German,)  by  Ck. 
Fr.  Ammon.  I.  vol.  in  2  parts.  Nuremb.  and  Altorf. 
1808. 

III.  Ecclesiastical  Histories,  which  are  most  valuable  for 
dogmatic  history. 

Ecclesiastica  Historia  per  aliquot  pios  et  studiosos  viros 

in  m-be  Magdeburgica,  Bas.  1569 — 74.  XIII.  Tomi.  FoL 
Caes.  Baronii,  Annales  Ecclesiastici.     Romae  1588 — 1607. 

XII.    vol.    Fol.      Odorici    Raynaldi,   Annales  Eccles. 

Rom.   1646—76.     X.  vol.  Fol.  Both  together,  Lucca, 

1738—1759.     XXXVIII.  vol.  Fol. 
Natalis  Alexandri,  Historia  Ecclesiastica  ;  Paris  1776 — 86. 

XXVI.  vol.  8vo.  Venet,  1778.  XL  vol.  Fol. 

James  Basnage,  History  of  the  Church  ;  (in  French,)  1699. 
XL  Vol.  Fol. 

3* 


22 

Jo.  MattL  Schroeckk,  Christian  church  History ;  (in  Ger- 
man,) 1768—1810.     XLV.  vol.  8vo. 

J.  E,  Ch,  ScJiimdt,  Manual  of  christian  church  History  ; 
(in  German;  to  the  Reformation,)  VI.  vol.  8vo.     Gies-  I 
sen  and  Darmst.  1801—20.  ' 

A,  Neander,  General  history  of  the  christian  religion  and 
church  ;  (in  German,)  1825.  IV.  vol.  8vo.  to  be  con- 
tinued. 

IV.  Systems  of  Theology,  which  contain  something  of  dog- 
matic history. 

J  Gerhardi,  Loci  theologici — denuo  edidit  J.  Fried.  Cotta. 
Tubing.  1762—89.     XXII.  vol.  4to. 

G,  F,  Seileri,  Theologia  dogmatico-polemica,  cum  com- 
pendio  histor.  dogmat.  3d.  ed.  Erl.  1789.  8vo. 

/.  F,  Gruner,  Institutionum  theologiae  dogmatic®,  I — III. 
Hallae,  1777.  8vo. 

J.  Christopher  Doederlein,  Institutio  theologi  christiani  in 
capitibus  religionis  theoreticis  ;  ed.  6,  Altorf.  1799.  II. 
vols.  8vo. 

Elements  of  theology  and  of  dogmatical  history ;  (in  Ger- 
man,) by  C.  Fr.  Stdudlin,  3d  ed.  1809.  8vo. 

Commentarii  historici  decretorum  religionis  christianse  et 
formulae  Lutheriae,  scripsit  Christ.  Dan.  5^cA:.  Lips.  1801, 
8vo. 

J.  A.  L.  Wegscheider,  Institutiones  theol.  christ.  dogmata- 
ticae,  addita  singulorUm  dogmatum  historia  et  censura ; 
ed.  2,  Hallae,  1817.  8vo. 

Sec.  8.  Method  in  dogmatic  history. 
Since  it  has  been  admitted,  that  dogmatic  history  is 
not  to  be  regarded  as  a  mere  appendage  to  church  history 
or  to  dogmatic  theology,  but  that  it  deserves  to  be  treat- 
ed independently ;  different  methods  for  its  execution 
have  been  proposed,  and  some  of  them  have  been  put  in 
practice.  Some  writers  prefer  a  mere  chronological  ar- 
rangement; others  a  classification  of  the  materials;  and 
others  again  would  combine  both.  The  objects  of  an 
elementaiy  history  may  perhaps  be  best  secured,  by  as- 


OP    DOGMATIC    HISTORY,  23 

suming  certain  long  periods  of  time ;  and  by  giving,  first 
a  general  view  of  the  state  of  theology,  and  then  a  his- 
torical account  of  the  principal  doctrines  held  in  each  pe- 
riod. It  appears  not  unsuitable,  to  make  three  periods  : 
I.  The  early  ages,  A.  D.  1—600.  II.  The  middle  ages, 
A.  D.  600—1517.  III.  Modern  times,  A.  D.  1517— 
down  to  the  present  day. 

Remark.  On  method  in  dogmatic  history,  see  J.  Chr,  W. 
Augusti  neuen  theol.  Blattern,  vol.  II.  P.  II.  p.  11 — 22. 
W,  M.  L,  de  Wette  uber  Religion  und  Theologie.  Bar- 
hn,  1815,  8vo.  P.  II.  cap.  iv.  von  der  Christlichen  Dog- 
mengeschichte,  p.  167 — 193, 


FIRST  PERIOD. 

THE    EARLY   AGES.       A.  D.    1 600. 


Works,  J,  S,  Semler^s  historical  Introduction,  (in  German,) 
prefixed  to  S.J.  Baumgarten's  Untersuchungen  theologis- 
Cher  Streitigkeiten.     Halle,  1762-64.  III.  vol.  4to. 

Doctrinal  belief  of  the  christian  church  in  the  three  first  cen- 
turies; (in  German,  by  Ch.  Fr.  Rosier,)  Frankf.  1775. 
8vo.  Rosier^ s  Library  of  the  Fathers,  in  translations  and 
abridgments;  (in  German,)  Lips,  1776-86.  X.  vol.  Bvo. 
G.  D.  Fuch''s  Library  of  the  ecclesiastical  Councils;  (in 
German,)     Lips,  1780-84.  IV.  vol.  8vo. 

Essays  on  the  dogmatic  history  of  the  ancient  Greek  church, 
to  the  time  of  Clemens  Alexandrinus;  (in  German,  by  J. 
Fr,  Gaab,)     Jena,  1790.  8vo. 

A  full  history  of  doctrines,  as  held  by  the  Fathers;  (in  Ger- 
man,) by  Sam,  Gottl.  Lange,     1  vol.  Lips,  1796. 

History  of  the  faith  of  Christians,  from  the  age  of  Athana- 
sius,  to  Gregory  the  Great;  (in  German,)  by  J.  Chr,  Fr. 
Wundemann.     Lips,  1798-99.  II.  vol.  8vo. 

Antiquity  of  ecclesiastical  doctrines;  (in  German,)  by  J, 
Ullr.  Roder.     Coburg,  1812.  8vo. 


PART  I. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  STATE  OF  THEOLOGY. 

Sec.  9.  Jesus  Christ. 
The  Jewish  nation  was  distinguished  from  the  surround- 
ing nations,  by  giving  homage  to  the  one  God,  in  accord- 
ance with  their  sacred  books ;  with  a  splendid  worship  and 
numerous  ceremonies.  As  the  original  character  of  the 
Mosaic  religion  was  disfigured  by  speculations,  by  narrow 
conceptions,  and  immoral  practices,  Jesus  Christ  ap- 
peared, as  one  sent  from  God,  for  the  purpose  of  estab- 


muenscher's  elements,  etc.  25 

lishing  a  kingdom  of  God  on  the  earth.  His  doctrine  was 
simple  and  practical,  and  was  exhibited  as  occasions  drew 
it  forth.  Yet  in  compass  and  extent,  it  far  surpassed  the 
Jewish ;  and  it  embraced  the  superlative  germs  of  truth, 
for  the  profounder  reflection  and  investigations  of  the  suc- 
ceeding ages. 

Reference,  Fr.  V,  Reinhard  on  the  plan  which  the  foun- 
der of  the  christian  religion  devised,  for  the  benefit  of 
mankind  ;  (in  German,)  4th  ed.  1798. 

Sec.  10.  The  Apostles. 
The  apostles,  who  continued  to  propagate  and  spread 
the  doctrines  of  Christ,  and  who  were  led  by  their  circum- 
stances to  explain  those  doctrines  more  fully,  compensa- 
ted for  their  lack  of  a  learned  education  by  their  deep 
feeling,  their  noble  spirit,  and  their  devout  sense  of  reli- 
gion. Notwithstanding  it  has  been  questioned,-  whether 
they  all,  with  equal  success,  penetrated  into  the  whole 
system  of  their  master's  doctrine,  yet  it  is  certain  that  the 
Spirit  of  Jesus  animated  them  all.  Paul,  who  was  one 
of  them,  and  the  most  active  among  them,  employed  his 
Jewish  learning  in  explaining  and  enforcing  Christianity.* 

Sec.  11.  Opinions  of  the  early  Christians. 

The  views  and  the  convictions  of  such  as  united  with 
the  christians,  in  the  earliest  times,  could  not  but  be  ex- 
ceedingly various  and  unlike ;  for  they  had  differed  ex- 
tremely in  religion,  in  education,  in  habits,  and  other  cir- 
cumstances; and  it  must  have  been  a  considerable  time, 
before  the  community  could  annihilate,  or  even  diminish 
greatly,  the  peculiarities  of  individuals.  JHere,  labored 
zealous  teachers,  (the  apostolic  fathers,)  in  the  true  spirit 

*  Had  the  translator  felt  himself  at  liberty  to  express  his  own 
views,  he  would  in  this  section  have  given  far  more  distinctness 
and  prominence  to  those  miraculous  gifl*^  or  that  divine  inspiration^ 
which  Christ  promised  to  his  disciples,  to  qualify  them  for  their  of- 
fice. But  such  liberty  was  not  allowable  in  a  translation  :  and  the 
translator  begs  leave  to  remind  the  reader,  that  the  privale  opinions 
and  theological  hypotheses,  occasionally  appearing  among  the  his- 
torical facts  in  different  parts  of  the  work,  are  always  those  of  the 
author^  who  alone  is  responsible  for  them. 


26 

of  the  apostles,  though  with  diminished  power.  TAere, 
other  christians  formed  a  closer  union  with  Judaism, 
And  a  third  class,  (the  Gnostics,)  wishing  to  separate 
Christianity  altogether  from  Judaism,  shaped  it  according 
to  their  own  speculations. 

Sec.  12.  The  Church  and  its  Creed. 

The  disorders  arising  from  this  diversity  of  views,  and 
which  tended  to  the  prostration  of  the  christian  cause, 
might  contribute,  at  least,  to  induce  various  churches  to 
unite  together,  and  to  acknowledge  none  as  true  chris- 
tians, who  did  not  embrace  a  definite  but  simple  creed. 
A  belief  in  the  Father,  as  the  Creator  of  the  world ;  in 
the  Son,  who  became  a  man  and  died  for  the  salvation  of 
men ;  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  guided  the  ancient  pro- 
phets, as  well  as  the  aposdes ;  joined  with  the  expectation 
of  a  future  judgment  and  divine  retribution ;  were  the 
chief  articles  of  this  creed,  which  was  propagated  by  oral 
instruction.  Yet  with  it,  the  holy  scriptures  of  the  Old 
Testament,  were  used ;  and  gradually  also,  the  writings  of 
the  apostles  and  the  apostohcal  Fathers. 
Note.     A  Creed  is  given  by  Ireneus,  adv.  Haeres.  L.  I.  c. 

10.  by  Tertulliarit  deYe\3.nd\sY'\rgin,  c.  l.de  Praescript. 

Haeres.  c.  13.  contra  Prax.  c.2.  and  by  Origin,  de  Prin- 

cip.  Prefatio.     {Schiitz)  Progr.  de]Regula  fidei  apud  Ter- 

tullianum ;  Jenae,  1781.  4to. 

Sec.  13.  The  received  Theology, 
About  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  various  per- 
sons joined  the  christian  community,  who  were  no  stran- 
gers to  Grecian  learning  and  science.  They  needed  and 
employed  this  knowledge  and  their  intellectual  \ngor,  in 
the  various  conflicts  in  which  the  church  was  involved. 
Pagans  and  Jews  slandered  Christianity;  and  writers  ap- 
peared against  it.  These  were  answered  by  apologies. 
The  sects  which  were  excluded  from  the  churches, 
sought  revenge;  and  they  framed  bold  systems  of  belief. 
Within  the  church,  the  seeds  of  new  controversies  sprung 
up.  Thus  occasion  was  afforded  for  apologies,  and  for 
controversial  writings;  and  new  statements  and  expositions 


I 


1^  OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  27 

of  the  christian  doctrines  were  introduced,  in  which  the 
Bible  and  tradition  were  used  as  the  sources  of  know- 
ledge, and  philosophy  employed  as  an  auxiliary. 

Reference,    Jno.  G,  Rosenmiiller,  de  christianae  theologiae 
origine  liber.     Lips,  1786.  8vo. 

Sec.  14.  Estimation  of  the  Bible, 
The  Old  Testament  was  received,  as  a  divine  revela- 
tion, by  the  general  church,  but  not  by  the  Gnostics  and 
Manichaeans,    Yet  some  esteemed  only  the  books  writ- 
ten in  Hebrew  as  divine,  while  others  included  those  also 
which  were  found  in  Greek.     By  the  Manichaeans,  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament  were  not  regarded  as  the 
genuine   productions   of  the   apostles;    and  previously, 
Marcion  had  denied  the  authority  of  all  the  apostles  ex- 
cept Paul,  and  had  used  only  one  gospel  and  two  epistles 
of  Paul.     The  Catholics,  from  the  middle  of  the  second 
century,  received  with  one  voice  the  four  gospels,  the 
book  of  Acts,  the  Pauline  epistles,  and  the  first  epistles  of 
Peter  and  John  ;  but  they  held  different  opinions  respect- 
ing the  other  books.     Divine  inspiration  was  predicated, 
equally,  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  no  person 
was  prohibited  from  reading  either. 
References,     (Corodi^)  Essay  for  elucidating  the  History  of 
the  Jewish  and  Christian  biblical  Canons ;  (in  German,) 
Halle,  1792.  n.  vol.  8vo.     Contributions  to  the  History 
of  the  New  Testament  Canon ;  (in  German,)  by  Chr. 
Fried,  Weber;  Tubing.  1791.     Critical  History  of  the 
New  Testament  Scriptures  ;  (in  German,)  by  J.  E.  Chr. 
Schmidt;  Giessen,  1804.  II.  vol.8vo.    Chr,W,Fr.  Walchy 
Critical  investigation  of  the  use  made  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures in  the  four  first  centuries ;  (in  German,)  Lips.  J  779. 
8vo.     Compare  G.  E.  Lessing's  Theological  Remains  ; 
(in  German,)     Berlin,  1784.  8vo. 

Sec.  15.  Use  of  the  Bible. 
The  teachers,  with  the  exception  only  of  Origen  and 
Jerome,  depended  entirely  on  the  Greek  and  Latin  trans- 
lations of  the  Old  Testament.    And,  in  the  New  Tesr 
tament,  many  Latins  followed  solely  their  version.    The 


28  muenscher's  elements 

interpretation  of  the  Bible  was  not  based  on  sound  princi- 
ples, and  run  much  into  allegorical  meanings.  The  theory 
of  interpretation  proposed  by  Origen,  was  not  indeed 
embraced  in  all  its  parts  by  the  succeeding  fathers,  yet 
was  often  partially  adopted.  The  pure  grammatical  ex- 
positions, attempted  in  the  East,  by  Theodorus  of  Mop- 
suestia,  after  the  fourth  century,  met  with  little  encourage- 
ment. John  Chrysostom,  following  the  laxer  principles 
of  the  Antiochean  school,  met  with  more  approbation. 
The  occasional  disagreements,  between  the  received  doc- 
trines and  the  Bible,  were  adjusted  by  recurrence  to  the 
principle  of  accommodation,  supposed  to  be  adopted  by 
the  writers  of  the  Bible ;  yet  Irenaeus  and  Augustine  de- 
clared against  it. 

Reference,    J,   G.  Rosenmulleri,  Historia  interpretationis 

Jibrorum  sacrorum    in  ecclesia  Christiana  ;    in  V.  Parts. 

Hildburgh.  1795—1807.     Lips,  1813-14.  8vo. 
Fr.A.Carus,  Historia  antiquior  sententiarum  ecclsiae  grae- 

cae,  de  accommodatione  Christo  imprimis  et  Apostolis 

tributa.     Lips,  1793.  4to. 

Sec.  16.    Tradition, 

Tradition  was  at  first  the  primary,  and  afterwards  con- 
tinued to  be  the  secondary,  source  of  a  knowledge  of  Chris- 
tianity. On  tradition  was  founded  the  decision  respect- 
ing the  Canon  of  the  Bible.  It  was  resorted  to,  as  a  rule 
for  interpreting  the  scriptures,  and  as  a  means  of  ascer- 
taining the  doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  for  the  confuta- 
tion of  opposers.  The  decisions  of  ecclesiastical  councils, 
and  the  writings  of  eminent  divines,  continually  widened 
the  compass  and  extent  of  traditional  knowledge.  A  way 
was  also  devised,  for  removing  or  concealing  the  difficul- 
ties, which  attended  the  use  of  tradition,  arising  from  the 
contradictory  opinions  advanced  by  the  older  fathers. 
Vincentius  of  Lirins  gave  a  system  of  rules,  to  be  used  in 
appealing  to  tradition.  Besides  the  public  traditions  of 
the  church,  the  Gnostics,  and  likewise  some  Catholic  fa- 
thers, as  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  made  pretensions  to  pri- 
vate traditions,  which  were  preserved  by  the  apostles  and 
their  confidential  disciples. 


OF    DOGEATIC    HISTORY.  29 

Reference,  H.  P.  Marheinecke,  on  the  meaning  of  Tra- 
dition in  the  Catholic  System ;  (in  German,)  in  Daub  u. 
Creutzer's  Studien.  vol.  IV.  2.  p.  320.  «Sz^c. 

Sec.  17.  Philosophy. 

Some  Gnostics  had  previously  mixed  up  philosophical 
speculations  with  Christianity  5  but  it  was  past  the  middle 
of  the  second  century,  when  the  catholic  fathers  began  to 
make  use  of  philosophy.  However  hazardous  it  was,  in 
the  view  oi  Irenams  and  TertuUian,  to  combine  philoso- 
phy with  Christianity ;  in  the  view  of  the  Alexandrian  fa- 
thers, it  was  deemed  necessary  and  salutary.  They  were, 
indeed,  far  from  preferring  Grecian  philosophy  to  the  de- 
clarations of  Jesus  Christ ;  and  likewisejfrom  paying  abso- 
lute homage  to  any  philosophical  sect  whatever,  though 
they  valued  Plato  above  all  the  other  philosophers ;  but 
they  used  philosophy  as  an  auxiliary,  to  elucidate  and 
confirm  the  christian  doctrines,  and  to  impress  their  truth 
upon  the  educated  Pagans.  And  there  continued  to  be, 
afterwards,  different  opinions  respecting  the  utility  of  phi- 
losophy ;  which,  however,  had  less  and  less  influence  on 
the  articles  of  christian  faith,  as  the  tenets  of  the  general 
church  became  more  definitely  fixed. 

References.  J.  A,  G.  Neander,  de  fidei  gnoseosque  idea, 
et  ea,  qua  ad  se  invicim  et  ad  philosophiam  referantur, 
ratione  secundum  Clementem  Alexand.  Heidelb,  1811. 
8vo. 

Le  Platonisme  "de voile  (par  Souverain,)  a  Cologne  1700, 
Bvo. — and  in  German,  by  J.  F,  Ldffler,  ed.  2.  Ziillich. 
1792.  Bvo. 

{Baltus^)  Defense  de  Saints  Peres  accuses  du  Platonisme. 
Paris,  1711.  4to. 

Laur  Mosheim,  Diss,  de  turbata  per  recentiores  Platonicos 
ecclesia  ;  in  his  Dissertt.  ad  Historiam  eccles.  vol.  1.  ed. 
1743. 

Histoire  critique  de  1'  electicisme,  ou  des  nouveaux  Platoni- 
ciens.     Paris,  1766.     2  vols.  12mo. 

C.  A.  Theoph,  Keil,  de  doctoribus  ecclesiae  culpa  corruptae 

4 


30  MUENSCHER  S    ELEMENTS. 

per  Platonicas  sententias  Theologiae  liberandis  ;  Com- 
mentatt.  I— XIV.     Lips.  1793,  &,c. 
History  of  Philosophy  ;  (in  German,)  by  W.  Gottl.  Tenne- 
mann.  7th  vol.  Lips.   1809. 

Sec.  18.  Character  of  the  Theologians. 
From  the  sources  and  auxiliaries  now  described,  the- 
ological systems  were  framed.  The  Asiatic  teachers,  as 
Irenaeus,  kept  nearer  to  the  apostolical  simplicity.  The 
African,  Tertullian,  distinguished  himself  by  a  more 
gloomy  strictness,  and  by  a  glowing  imagination.  The 
Alexandrians,  among  whom  Clement  was  prominent^ 
shewed  more  freedom  of  thought,  and  a  more  metaphys- 
ical disposition,  and  made  a  distinction  between  the  popu- 
lar belief  and  scientific  investigations,  (*»5<?  and  ^vwCtg.) 

[References.  A.  Neander,  General  History  of  the  Christian 
religion  and  church  :  (in  German.)  vol.  L  P.  HI.  p.  861 
— 957,  ed.  Hamb.  1827.] 

Idea  of  the  perfectability  of  Christianity,  entertained  by  the 
Gnostics  and  the  Manichaeans,  by  the  Montanists,  by 
Origen  and  Vincent  of  Lirins. 

Sol,  Deyling,  Irenaeus  evangelicae  veritatis  confessor  et  tes- 
tis : — in  his  Observatt.  miscellaneis.  p.  3. — J,  G,  Walchy 
de  Clemente  Alexandrino  et  ejus  erroribus  ;  in  his  Mis- 
cell,  sacris.  p.  510. 

Sec.  19.  Origen. 
In  the  Alexandrian  school  arose  Origen,  who  excel- 
led all  the  other  teachers  in  learning  and  untiring  activity. 
He  not  only  defended  Christianity  against  Celsus,  but,  in 
his  work  de  Principiis  {'^^spi  ap;)^wv,)  made  the  first  at- 
tempt to  philosophise  on  christian  doctrines  in  their  con- 
nections. His  chief  object  was,  to  shew  that  the  wisdom 
and  goodness  of  the  divine  govenment  were  in  harmony 
with  the  freedom  of  man's  will.  The  many  peculiar 
ideas  and  hypotheses  which  he  advanced,  are  worthy  ol 
attention,  although  not  received  into  the  prevailing  sys- 
tem of  belief.     Even  in  his  life  time,  and  still  more  after 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  31 

his  death,  he  was  held  in  very  different  estimation.  Far 
less  was  the  influence  of  the  Latin  fathers,  Cyprian^  No* 
vatian,  Arnobius,  and  Latantius,  in  perfecting  system- 
atic theology. 

Reference.      P.    Dan,   Huet,     Origeniana  : — in  Origen's 
Works,  ed.  de  la  Rue.  torn.  IV. 

Sec  20.     Christianity,  as  the  prevailing  Religion. 

Soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  fourth  century, 
a  great  change  took  place,  when  the  Roman  Emperors 
professed  themselves  Christians  ;  and  the  consequences 
in  regard  to  theology,  were  extensive  and  important. 
Now,  the  court  concerned  itself  with  points  of  faith 
among  christians.  Now,  theological  controversies  were 
decided  and  creeds  established,  by  general  councils. 
Now,  certain  distinguished  bishops  in  the  principal  sees, 
had  the  chief  concern  in  defining  the  articles  of  faith. 
The  rapid  spread  of  monkery,  infused  its  spirit  into  the 
theologians.  The  prevailing  belief  was  still  defended  by 
arguments  from  the  Bible  and  from  tradition ;  but  strict 
orthodoxy  was  esteemed  of  higher  importance ;  and  a 
mysterious  efficacy  was  more  and  more  ascribed  to  reli- 
gious rites  and  usages.  Freedom  of  inquiry  was  cramp- 
ed ;  and  deceptive  reasoning  was  sometimes  allowed  of 
in  theology. 

Sec.  21.     Religious  controversies. 

The  religious  controversies,  which  were  carried  on 
with  the  greatest  vehemence,  contributed  very  much,  to 
shape  the  system  of  theology.  There  was  controversy 
with  the  Manichaeans,  respecting  the  origin  of  evil,  and 
respecting  divine  providence ;  and  with  the  Donatists, 
respecting  the  true  notion  of  a  church.  The  Arian  con- 
test procured  for  Athanasius,  the  reputation  of  being  the 
father  of  orthodoxy,  and  afforded  Basil  of  Cesarea,  Hi- 
lary of  Poictiers,  and  the  two  Gregorys,  an  opportunity 
to  display  their  talents.  The  Pelagian  contest  put  in 
jrequisition  the  unceasing  activity  of  Augustine.     The 


protracted  quarrel  respecting  the  person  of  Christ,  the 
seeds  of  which  were  sowed  in  the  fourth  century,  but 
attained  maturity  in  the  fifth,  attracted  general  attention  ; 
though  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  Theodoret  and  Leo  the 
Great,  were  the  most  prominent  in  it ;  as  Facundus,  Bp» 
of  Hermiane,  was  in  the  dispute  concerning  the  Three 
Chapters.  The  Romish  Bishop,  Gregory  the  great,  clo- 
ses the  list  of  distinguished  fathers  in  this  period. 

Sec.  22.  System  of  Theology. 
While  some  controverted  points  of  doctrine  were  ex- 
amined with  diligence,  very  little  was  done  for  advan- 
cing the  general  system  of  theology.  Some  efforts  for  a 
popular  exhibition  of  it,  were  made  by  Cyril  of  Jerusa- 
lem, Rvfinus,  Theodoret,  and  Gennadius,  The  more 
full  religious  instruction  by  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  was  in- 
tended for  the  use  of  the  learned.  An  abundance  of 
materials  for  an  occidental  system  of  theology,  was  pre- 
pared by  Augustine  ;  who  brought  into  circulation  many 
new  views,  to  which  his  influence  gave  currency. 

References,  Sol.  Deyling,  Cy  rill  us  Hierosol.  a  corrupte- 
lis  Pontificiorum  purgatus  ;  in  his  Observatt.  Miscell.  p. 
116. — [Engelstofft^)  Hieronymus  Stridoniensis,  interpres, 
criticus,  exegeta,  &c.  Hafniae,  1797.  8vo. 

Sec.  23.  Decline  of  theologicalleaming. 
After  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  theological 
learning  depreciated.  There  were  no  seminaries,  for  the 
education  of  religious  teachers.  A  disposition  to  make 
investigation,  gave  place  to  a  servile  repetition  of  what 
had  been  said  by  others  ;  and  compilations  appeared,  in- 
stead of  original  works.  Ignorance  and  superstition  got 
the  upper  hand  ;  and  a  tenacious  adherence  to  the  decis- 
ions of  ecclesiastical  councils  and  of  the  eminent  fathers, 
characterized  the  theologians.  Junilius  sketched  the 
plan  of  a  system  ;  and  the  spurious  writings  of  Dyoni^ 
sius  the  Areopagite,  encouraged  the  inclination  to  su-* 
perstitious  creations  of  the  imagination. 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  33 

Meferences,  Junilius,  de  Parti  bus  legis  divinae  Lib.  11. — 
Jo,  Dalle,  de  Scriptis,  quae  sub  Dyonisii  Areopagitae  et 
Ignatii  Antioch.  nomine  circuiriferunler.  Genev.  1666. 
4to. 


PART  II. 

HISTORY    OF    PARTICULAR   DOCTRINES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

DOCTRINE    OF    THE    KINGDOM    OF    CHRIST. 

Sec.  24.  Origin  of  the  Idea, 
The  Jewish  nation  expected  a  kingdom,  to  be  estab- 
lished by  the  Messiah  ;  and  this  idea  Jesus  did  not  reject, 
but  only  elevated  and  improved  it.  The  christians  were 
distinguished  from  the  Jews,  by  considering  the  Mes- 
siah as  already  come,  and  by  their  anticipation  of  his 
second  coming  in  glory.  The  approaching  kingdom  of 
the  Messiah  was,  by  most  christians,  described  with  sensi- 
ble imagery,  after  the  Jewish  manner.  Thus  was  form- 
ed the  doctrine  of  Chiliasm  ;  which  was  embraced  by  the 
heretic  Cerinthus,{l)  as  well  as  by  the  Bp.  Papias,{2,) 

(1)  Buseh  H.  E.  III.  c.  28.     Theodoret,  Haeret.  II.  c.  3. 

(2)  Irenaeus,  adv.  Haeres.  V.  c.  33,  and  Euseb.  H.  E.  III. 
c.  39. 

Reference.  De  regno  Christi  in  N.  T.  formulis  ^cudiksioLZ 
0SX,  &c.  expresso  ;  Excursus  II.  in  the  Koppian  N.  Test, 
on  E p.  to  the  Thess. — C.  A.  TL  Keil,  Historia  dogmatis 
de  regno  Messiae,  Christi  et  Apostolorum  aetate ;  Lips. 
1781,  4to. — I.  C  Rud.  Eckermann^s  Theological  con- 
tributions :  (in  German,)  vol.  II.  P.  I.  p.  67. — C.  CJir. 
Flatt,  Diss,  de  notione  vocis  ^oLdiKsioL  <rwv  oupav6jv.  Tubing. 
1794,  4to. 

W.  Miinscher,  Historical  account  of  the  doctrine  of  a  thou- 
sand years  reign,  as  held  in  the  three  first  centuries :  (in 
4* 


34 


German,)  in  Henke's  Magazin  fiir  Religionsphiloso- 
phie,  u.  s.  w.  vol.  VI.  P.  II.  p.  233  &c.— (Corodi.) 
Critical  history  of  Chiliasm;  (in  German,)  ed.  2.  1794,  IV. 
vol.  8vo. 

Sec.  25.  Friends  and  opposers  of  Chiliasm. 
The  Gnostics  (1)  were  decided  opposers  of  the  thou- 
^isend  years  reign  :  yet  in  the  second  century,  the  doc- 
trine came  near  to  being  accounted  a  part  of  the  ortho- 
dox faith,  and  was  defended  by  the  most  reputable  fa- 
thers, as  Justin  Martyr  (2),  Irenaeus  (3),  and  Tertulli" 
an  (4).  The  Montaiiists,  appear  to  have  been  much 
attached  to  this  doctrine.  On  the  contrary,  it  met  with 
opposition  from  some  Catholics,  particularly  those  of  Al- 
exandria; and  Origen[b)  labored  with  great  zeal,  to  banish 
from  the  church  an  opinion,  which  he  deemed  to  be  Jew- 
ish and  degrading  to  Christianity. 

(1)  Miinscher^s  Manual  of  dogmatic  history,  vol.  II.  Sec. 
272,     Walck's  History  of  Heresies,  vol.  I.  p.  515. 

(2)  Dial,  cum  Tryph.   p.   177,  178,  202,  203. 

(3)  adv.  Haeres.  V.   25—36. 

(4)  contra  Marcion.  III.  c.  24. 

(5)  Proleg.  in  Cantic.  0pp.  T.  III.  p.  26.  de  Princip. 
L.  II.  ell.  Opp.  T.  I.  p.  104— in  Psalm.  Opp.  II.  p. 
570— in  Matth.  Opp.  III.  p.  827.  contra  Gels.  IV.  Opp. 
L  p.  516. 

Sec.  26.  Last  struggles  of  Chiliasm. 
Notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  Origen,  Chiliasm  contin- 
ued to  find  advocates.  Methodius  ( 1 )  and  Hippolytus  (2) 
were  its  patrons ;  and  the  Egyptian  Bishop,  Jfepos,  (3) 
undertook  to  confute  the  arguments  of  Origen.  But  JDi- 
onysius  of  Alexandria  (4)  espoused  the  side  of  Origen, 
and  he  brought  the  Chiliasts,  and  their  champion  Cora- 
don,  to  renounce  it.  From  that  time,  the  reigning  pro- 
pensity to  this  doctrine  declined ;  especially,  as  the  rela- 
tions of  the  church  to  the  Roman  government  became 
changed.  Yet  the  doctrine  was  held  by  individuals,  so 
late  as  the  fourth  century  ;  among  whom  were  Lactan- 
tius  (5)   Apollinaris,    (6)  and  vaiious  western  chris- 


OF  DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  *^$ 

tians  (7.)  Even  Augustine^  (8)  at  first,  admitted  a 
thousand  years  reign  of  Christ,  though  a  spiritual  one : 
but  he  afterwards  gave  up  that  idea. 

(1)  Sympos.  X,  Virgin,  p.  129. 

(2)  SeeP/io^m5,Bibloth.  cod. 202.  p.  525. 

(3)  Euseh.  H.  E.  VII.  c.  24. 

(4)  Euseh.  1.  c. 
f5J  Institt.  divin.  L.  VII.  c.  14—26. 

(6)  Epiphan.  Haeres.  LXXVII.  Sec.  26.  j'O 

(7)  Jerome,  Prooem.  in  Lib.  XVII.  Jesaiae,  0pp.  Toni.{¥.    ^/>. 
p.  203  <S^c.  \t\         "^6 

(8)  Sermo  CLTX.  Opp.  Tom.  V.  p.  1060.     de  CivitVwSj* 
Dei.  XX.  c.  7.     Retract.  I.  c.  17.  ^^^lI: 

Sec.  27.  Doctrine  oj  the  Resurrection. 
Sources  of  the  history  of  it. — Besides  occasional  notices; 
see  Justin  Martyr,  Airoki^is  resurrectioniscnrnis. — Athe- 
nagoras^  de  Resurrectione  Liber. — Tertullian,de  Resur- 
rectione  carnis. — Origen,  de  Principiis  L.  II.  c.  10. — 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Calech.  XVIII. — Gregory  Nyssen^ 
de  Anima  et  Resurrectione. — Ambrose,  de  Fide  resur- 
rectionis.—  Aw^M^/iwe,  de  Civitate  Dei,  L.  XXII. 

Histories  of  the  doctrine.  Fides  dogmatis  de  Resurrectione 
carnis  per  IV.  priora  secula.  Enarratio  historico-criti- 
ca;  by  W.  Alb.  Teller,  Halle  and  Helmst,  1766.  8vo. 
History  of  opinions,  concerning  the  state  of  man  after 
death,  in  the  christian  church  ;  (in  German,)  by  Ch.  W, 
FUgge,  Lips.   1799—1800.  II.  vols.  8vo. 

This  doctrine  was  closely  connected  with  that  of  Chil- 
iasm ;  and  with  it,  passed  from  the  Jews  to  the  Chris- 
tians. Those  who  suffered  death  under  persecution, 
before  the  full  establishment  of  the  Messiah's  kingdom, 
were  not  to  be  excluded  from  its  blessedness.  The  Mes- 
siah, it  was  supposed,  would  recall  them  to  life  again. 
Jesus  himself  taught  a  resurrection  of  the  dead;  and 
Paul  advanced  a  beautiful  theory  concerning  it.  But 
the  Chiliasts  maintained  the  restoration  of  the  former 
bodies  of  men,  with  all  their  parts  and  members ;  and 
endeavored  to  make  this  to  be  conceivable.     Justin  Mar- 


36  muenscher's  elements 

tyr  and    TertulUan  composed  their  treatises  on  the  re- 
surrection, with  these  views. 

Sec.  28.  Opposition  to  this  grosser  theory. 
The  Gnostics  could  not  admit,  at  all,  the  doctrine  of 
a  resurrection ;  because  it  contravened  one  of  their  funda- 
mental principles,  that  of  the  incurable  malignancy  of 
matter.  They,  of  course,  anticipated  rewards  and  pu- 
nishments only  for  the  soul.  The  Alexandrians,  Ch- 
mens{l)  and  Origen,  (2)  adhered  indeed  to  the  prevailing 
doctrine  of  a  resurrection  of  the  body ;  but  they  discard- 
ded  the  idea,  that  the  entire  human  body,  with  all  its 
parts  and  members,  would  be  restored  to  its  former  con- 
dition ;  and  maintained,  that  God  would  bestow  on  men 
more  refined  bodies,  better  suited  to  their  elevated  state. 
In  this  they  were  influenced  by  the  Platonic  notions,  that 
the  body  is  a  shackle  to  the  soul,(3)  and  that  human  souls 
existed  before  the  creation  of  this  material  world. 

(1)  Paedag.  11.  c.  10.  and  III.  c.  1,4. 

(2)  de  Princip.  Prooem.  Sec.  5.  p.  48. — contra  Cels.  V.  690 
594  &c.  and  Lib.  VIII.  p.  777  &c.  and  Lib.  II.  c.  2, 3,  10. 

(3)  Clemens  Alex.  Strom.   IV.  p.  5G9. 

Sec  29.  Subsequent  history  of  the  doctrine. 
The  opinions  of  the  Gnostics  was  again  advanced 
by  the  Manicheans -,[!)  but  was  absolutely  rejected  by 
the  church.  On  the  other  hand,  the  grosser  theory, 
(which  however  was  detached  from  its  connexion  with 
Chiliasm,)  and  the  more  refined  theory  of  Origen,  both 
held  their  place  in  the  church,  for  a  long  time  ;(2)  until, 
Epiphanius{3)  and  Jerome,[4)  in  their  controversy  with 
John  bishop  of  Jerusalem  and  Rujinus,  pressed  closely 
the  letter  of  the  creed,  that  the  same  bodies  with  all  their 
former  parts  and  members,  would  be  raised  again.  Even 
Jlugustine{b)  finally  declared  himself  of  this  opinion; 
and  the  opposite  opinion  sunk  more  and  more  into  dis- 
repute, till  at  length  the  Emperor  Jw5^imaw(6)  proscribed 
it.  Yet  subsequently,  all  disagreements  in  the  explana- 
tion of  the  doctrine  were  not  entirely  at  an  end.(7) 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  37 

(t)  TheodoreU  Epit.  Haer.  Lib.  I.  c.  26. 

(2)  Miinscher^s  Handbu.  vol.  IV.  p.  438   &.c. 

(3)  Ancor.  §  89—102.     Haeres  LIV.  §  63   &c. 

(4)  Adv.  errores  Joannis  Hieros.ad  Pammach.Opp.Tom.IL 
p.  118,  &c.  Epitaph.  Paulae,  ad  Eustoch.  Opp.  Tom* 

I.  p.  117.  Apol.  contra  Rufin.   L.  II.  0pp.  II.  p.  145. 

(5)  Enchirid.  ad  Laurent,  c.  86,  87,89—91.  deCivitate 
Dei.  XXIL  C.13— 21. 

(6)  Mansi,  Concil.  Tom.  IX.  p.  400,  616. 

(7)  Miinscher,  1.  c.  p.  449  &c. 

Sec.  30.   The  intermediate  state. 

The  inquiries  respecting  the  resurrection,  and  thecom* 
mencement  of  the  future  retributions,  unavoidably  brought 
up  the  question,  What  is  the  state  of  the  soul,  when  it  is 
separate  from  the  body .''  In  answering  it,  the  early  fathers 
combined  the  old  notion  of  a  region  of  shades,  with  the 
doctrine  of  recompense  after  death.  All  souls,  said  they, 
pass  immediately,  after  death,  into  the  lower  world ;  where 
the  good,  severed  from  the  others,  enjoy  a  foretaste  of 
blessedness,  and  the  bad  have  a  foretaste  of  punishment; 
until  the  time  of  full  retribution,  after  the  resurrection. 
Yet  the  souls  of  martyrs,  have  the  privilege  of  going,  im- 
mediately after  death,  to  heavenly  bliss.  The  place  of 
residence  for  good  souls,  that  died  after  Christ's  day,  was 
different  from  AhraharrCs  bosom,  or  the  residence  of  the 
souls  that  died  before  Christ, — out  of  which,  however, 
Christ  had  removed  them. 

Reference.  Irenaeus,  adv.  Haeres.  II.  c.  34.  V.  c.  6,  31. 
Justin  Martyr,  Dial.  p.  107,  178,  200.  TertuUian,  de 
Anima.  c.  7,  43,  65,68.  de  Resurrect,  c.  17,  43.  Apolo- 
get.  c.  47.  de  Monog.  c.  10,  contra  Marcion,  IV.  c.  34. 
Origen,  0pp.  Tom.  I.  p.  36, 106, 213,434, 696  &c.  Tom. 

II.  p.  222,  372,  496   &c.     Hippolytus,  0pp.  ed  Fabric. 
Tom  I.  p.  220. 

Treatise  on  the  belief  of  the  Fathers  respecting  the  state  of 
souls  after  the  present  life  :  (in  French,)  by  Dav,  Blon- 
deh     Charenton,  1661,  4to. 


38  muenscher's  elements 

S,  L  Baumgarten,  Historia  doctrinae  de  statu  animarum 
separatarum  ;  Halle,  1754.  4to. 

Jo,  Aug.  Dietelmair,  Historia  dogmatis  de  descensu  Christi 
ad  inferos,  ed.  2.  1768.  8vo. 

J,  S.  Semler,  Observatio  historico-dogmatica,  de  vario  fet  im- 
parl studio  veterum  in  recolenda  Historia  descensus  Christi 
ad  inferos;  Hal.  1776.  4to. 

Dogmatis  de  descensu  I.  C.  ad  inferos  Historiam  biblicam 
atque  ecclesiasticam,  composuitJ.  CZaw56n.Hafn.1801.8vo 

Sec.  31.  Subsequent  modifications. 
As  martyrdoms  became  less  frequent,  the  privilege  of 
immediate  admission  to  the  world  of  glory,  was  extended 
beyond  the  class  of  martyrs,  to  persons  of  distinguished 
piety,  particularly  to]ascetics  and  monks.  And  now,  Au- 
gustine{l)  fell  upon  the  idea,  that  the  place  of  other  souls, 
which  were  destined  to  glory,  but  were  not  quite  fit  for  it 
at  leaving  the  body,  was  a  place  oi purgation.  As  pre- 
paring the  way  for  this  idea,  it  had  been  customary,  from 
the  earliest  times,  to  pray  for  the  souls  of  the  dead  ;(2) 
and  various  early  fathers  had  mentioned  a  purifying  fire; 
which,  however,  they  placed  in  the  process  of  the  gene- 
ral judgment,  or  subsequent  to  it. (3) 

(1)  de  Civitate  Dei.  XXI.  c.  13,  24,  26.  contra  Julian.  VI. 
c.  15.  §  46,  and  0pp.  Tom  VI.  p.  127,  128,  180, 181. 

(2)  Tertull.  de  Monog.  c,  10.  contra  Marcion.  III.  c.  24. 
Epipkan,  Haeres.  LXXV.  §  3,  7.  Cyril.  Hieros.  Ca- 
tech.  XXIII.  §  9,  10.  Chrysost.  in  Ep.  ad  Philip.  Ho- 
mil.  III.— in  Ep.  I.  ad  Cor.  Homil.  XLI. 

(3)  Methodius-,  in  Photius,  Biblioth.  Cod.  234,  p.  923. 
Lactantius.  Instit.  div.  VII.  c.  21. 

Sec.  32.  Purgatory  fully  established. 
The  theory  advanced  without  assurance  by  Augustine, 
was  held  up  as  certain,  by  Caesarius[l)  of  Aries,  and 
Gregory(2)  the  Great.  According  to  them,  the  souls  which 
had  been  guilty  ot  venial  sins,  but  had  not  done  ade- 
quate penance  for  them  in  this  life,  would  suffer,  according 
to  the  degree  of  their  guilt,  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  after 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY*  59 

deathjin  a  fire  of  purgation;  and  then  would  pass  into  the  place 
of  the  blessed.  The  anguish  of  these  souls,  moreover, 
may  be  mitigated,  or  curtailed,  by  the  prayers  and  the  good 
works  of  tlie  living. 

(1)  Homil.  VIII.  extant  in  the  Biblioth.  max.  Patr.  Tom. 
VIII.  p.  826-28.  and  in  0pp.  Augustini,  Tom.  V.  Ap- 
pend. Serm.  CIV.  p.  185. 

(2)  Dialog.  Lib.  IV.  c.  39,  40,  65. 

Sec.  33.  Hell 

Hell,  (Gehenna,)  or  the  place  of  the  damned,  was  totally 
distinct  from  the  fire  of  purgatory.  On  the  duration  of  hell- 
torments,  there  was  not  perfect  uniformity  of  sentiment. 
Some,  as  Arnobius,[l)  and  perhaps  Justin  Martyr,  sup- 
posed the  punishment  would  end,  in  the  annihilation  of 
those  who  sufiered  it.  Origen[2)  allowed  to  the  damned 
a  hope  of  their  reformation  and  salvation  ;  and  this  idea  is 
seen  to  glimmer,  even  in  the  corrupt  translation  of  his 
writings  by  Rujinus.  The  similar  views  of  Gregory{S) 
of  Nyssa,  in  many  of  his  declarations,  cannot  be  construed 
away.  Also  the  Antiochian  fathers,  Diodorus{4)  of  Tar- 
sus, and  Theodore{p)  of  Mopsuestia,  believed  in  the  ter- 
mination of  future  punishment.  Jerome  insisted,  indeed, 
on  the  eternal  punishment  of  all  who  rejected  Christianity ; 
but  he  allowed  wicked  christians  to  hope  for  a  release.  By 
far  the  greater  part  of  the  fathers,  however, declared  them- 
selves believers  in  the  eternity  of  the  torments  of  all  the  wick- 
ed ;(6)  and  the  zeal  of  the  Emperor  Jw^^ma/i  caused  the 
ideas  of  Origen  on  this  subject,  to  be  anathematized. (7) 

( 1 )  adv.  Gentes.  Lib.  II.  p.  52,  86. 

(2)  de  Princip.  L.II.  c.  3,  5,  6,10.  Lib.  IIL  c.  6,  8,  and  0pp. 
Tom.  L  p.  23L  Tom.  IL  p.  113,  115,  230.  Tom.  IIL  p. 
667.  Yet  he  would  conceal  this  doctrine  from  the  peo- 
ple, as  being  corrupting:  contra  Gels.  L.III.  pA99^  L.VI. 
p.  650.  L.V.  p.  598,  599,  and  0pp.  Tom.  II.  p.  688,  889. 
Tom.  III.  p.  267. 

( 3 )  Orat.  catech.  c.  8,  26, 85. 


40  muencher's   elements 

(4  and  6)  See  Assemann,  Biblioth.  Orient.  T.  III.  P.  I.  p. 
323,  324. 

(6)  Justin  Martyr,  Apol.  II.  p.  48,  60,  74.  Dial.  p.  141,223. 
Tatian,  Orat.  ad  Graec.  p.  264  &c.  Theoph.  ad  Autol. 
p.  346.  Irenaeus,  adv.  Haer.  V.  c.  27.  Tertullian, 
Apologet.  c.  48.  de  Resurr.  carnis  c.  36.  de  Testimonio 
Anim.  c.  4.  Mxnudus  Felix,  Octav.  c.  36.  Cyprian, 
ad  Demetr.  p.  196.  Lactantius,  Instit.  div.  VII.  c.  21, 
26.  Basilihe  Great,  0pp.  Tom.  II.  p.  607.  torn.  III. 
p.  663.  CynZ of  Jerus.  Cat.  IV.  §  30.  XVIII.  §  19.  Hilary 
of  Poictiers,  Comment,  in  Matth.  c.  V.  §  12.  p.  636. 
Chrysostom,  ad  Theodor.  lapsum.  I.  c.  6.  0pp.  T.  IV.  p. 
659.  Augustine^  in  many  places  ;  e.  g.  Enchir.  ad  Laur. 
c.  Ill,  112.  de  Civiiate  Dei.  XXI.  passim.  Pelagius, 
Symbol,  in  Walchii  Bibl.  symbol,  p.  196.  Cyril  of  A\- 
exand.  de  Exitu  animae  &c.  Opp,  Tom.  V.  P.  II.  p, 
409.  Theodoret,  in  Isai.  Opp.  T.  II.  p.  396.  Genna- 
dius,  de  dogmat.  eccles.  c.  9.  Fulgentius  of  Ruspe,  de 
Remiss,  peccat.  L.  II.  c.  13  &c.  Cassiodorus,  de  Ani- 
ma.  c.  12.  Gregory  the  Gr.  Moral.  IX.  c.  38,  Dialog. 
IV.  c.  44. 

(7)  Mansi  Concil.  IX.  p.  399,  618. 

References,  J.  A.  Dietelmaier,  Commenti  fanatici  a-roxa- 
rag'atfscAig  cravrwv  Historia  antiquior.     Altorf.  1769,  8vo. 

J.Fr,Cotta,  Historia  succincta  dogmatis  de  poenarum  infer- 
nalium  duratione.     Tubing.  1774. 

Hos.  Ballou.  (History  of  the  doctrine  of  universal  salvation :) 
Boston,  1827.  12mo. 

Sec.  34.  Doctrine  concerning  the  Church, 
With  the  doctrine  of  the  glorious  kingdom  of  Christ, 
and  the  rewards  and  punishments  there  to  be  expected, 
the  early  christians  connected  the  doctrine  of  the 
church,  as  being  the  present  kingdom  of  Christ,  and  the 
institution  which  was  preparatory  to  the  future  state  of 
glory.  Though  the  society  of  christians  was  spoken 
of  by  Jesus,  as  being  one ;  yet  this  unity  had  reference 
solely  to  a  moral  oneness.  Moreover,  the  first  christ- 
ian communities  were  bound  together,  only  by  their  feel- 
ings of  brotherly  love,  and  by  their  acts  of  kindness. 
Ignatius,  however,  pressed  upon  christians,  to  adhere  close- 
ly to  their  respective  Bishops. 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  41 


Sec.  35.  Unity  of  the  general  Church. 
Before  the  end  of  the  second  century,  the  idea  of 
one  churchy  as  an  establishment  of  the  apostles,  spread 
over  the  whole  world,  and  harmonizing  in  doctrine,  was 
formed.  Irenaeus,  the  first  that  expressed  this  idea,  con- 
nected with  it  the  thoughts,  that  only  in  this  catholic  church 
can  the  truth  be  found,  and  that  all  separations  from 
it  are  reprehensible.  •  By  the  African  doctors,  Tertullian 
and  Cyprian^  these  thoughts  were  widely  propagated; 
and  in  the  fourth  century,  the  belief  in  one,  holy,  catholic, 
and  apostolic  church,  was  made  an  article  of  the  public 
creed. 

Reference,     Cyprian,  de  Unitate  ecclesiae  Liber* 

Sec.  36.     Controversies  respecting  the  marks  of  a  true 
church. 

The  Novatians  declared  their  community  to  be,  the  on- 
ly true  church ;  because  all  others  had  become  corrupt, 
by  receiving  the  lapsed  to  fellowship.  The  same  assump- 
tion was  made  by  the  Donatists  ;  yet  with  this  difference, 
in  the  ground  of  it,  that  the  other  churches  were  con- 
taminated, by  their  communing  with  Traditors.  And 
hence,  Augustine  took  occasion,  to  represent  Catholicism 
as  the  sign  of  a  true  church  ;  so  that  purity  in  all  its  mem- 
bers, was  not  requisite.  His  views  were  generally  em- 
braced. The  Romish  bishops  began  early,  to  seize  upon 
the  idea,  that  it  belonged  to  them  to  be  the  head  of  the 
general  church. 

References.  Optatus  Milevit.  de  Schismate  Donatistarum, 
L.  Vm.  ed.  L.  E.  Du  Pin.  Paris,  1701.  Augustine, 
contra  Parmenianum  Donatist.L.III. — contra  Lileras  Pe- 
tiliani,  L.  iii. — de  Unitate  ecclesiae,  L.  I. — contra  Cres- 
conium  Doiiat.  L.  IV. — contra  Gaudentium  Donat.  L.  IL 
5 


42  muenschek's  ei.ements 

CHAPTER  IL 

doctrine  concerning  angels,  and  devils. 

Histories  of  it.     Jac  Ode,  Tractatus  de  Angelis  ;   Traj.  acl 
Rhen.    1739.  4to.     J.   Ft.  Cotta,  Diss.  II,  sucrinctam 
,  doctrinae  de  Angelis  historiam  exhihentes:  Tubing.  1765. 
4to, 

Sec.  37.  Existence  of  Angels, 
With  the  belief  of  an  approaching  glorious  kingdom  ol 
the  Messiah,  the  Christians  had  also  a  belief  of  a  power- 
ful, but  invisible  kingdom  of  spirits,  which  had  a  constant 
influence  on  the  earth  and  on  the  state  of  men  ;  and  this 
belief,  which  they  derived  from  the  Jewish  theology,  was 
to  them  of  great  importance,  and  very  efficient  in  kindling 
religious  feelings.  The  angels  were  considered  as  be- 
ings, who  derived  their  origin  from  God,  (though  the 
time  and  manner  of  their  origin  were  differently  repre* 
sented,)  who  ranked  above  men,  yet  were  not  absolutely 
uncorporeal ;  and  who  were  divided  into  two  classes, 
good  and  bad  angels. 

Reference,     Justin  Martyr^  Apol.  maj.  Sec.  6,  p.  47.     *E- 

xSivov  <rs  (rov  dXyj^sgarov  ©sov  xaj  -rrarspa)  x«i  tov  ^ap'  aurs 
Ciov  sX^ovToc  xat  (5i5a|avTa  >;//«a^  raura,  xat  «rGv  twv  ctXXwv 
§«jrojxevwv  xai  ggofjLoiij|xgvwv  a^a^wv  d  ^  ^  5  X  w  v  crparov,  flrvsufJUJt 
rs  TO  •rpo(pr]<rixov  tfs^ofJt-FS^a  xat  'jrp6a'xuvs|JL5v  Xo^w  xai  ctXrj^sia 
«r»|*wv<rs?.  This  passage  is  capable,  indeed,  of  different 
interpretations  ;  yet  in  any  way,  it  shows  the  high  import- 
ance then  attached  to  the  doctrine  concerning  angels. 

Sec.  38.     Offices  of  the  Angels, 

The  Crnostics  ascribed  to  angels,  the  creation  of  the 
material  world,  the  enactment  of  the  Jewish  law,  and  the 
inspiration  of  the  ancient  prophets.  And  the  other  christ- 
tians  were  persuaded  that  God,  in  governing  the  world, 
used  the  instrumentality  of  angels.    An  angel  was  as- 


Of   DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  48 

Signed  to  each  nation,  as  its  overseer  ;  and  to  each  per- 
son, one  or  two  guardian  angels  were  appointed.  This 
last  hypothesis  was  first  published  by  Hermas,  in  his 
Shepherd.(l) 

(U  Herman,  Pastor,  Mandat.  VI. 

Reference,  F,  Schmidt^  Historia  dogmatis  de  Angelis  tu- 
telaribus,  P.  L  in  the  memoirs  of  the  Historico-theolo- 
gical  Society  of  Leipsic,  edited  by  Illgen,  Lips.  1818. 
p.  24—71. 

Sec.  39.  Condition  of  the  Angels. 
The  opinion  of  Origen^  that  even  the  good  angels 
were  not  faultless,  and  beyond  the  danger  of  sinning, 
was  cried  down  by  the  later  fathers ;  who  maintained, 
that  the  angels  had,  through  the  grace  of  God,  become 
confirmed  in  holiness.  That  they  were  divided  into 
various  classes,  was  frequently  asserted;  even  before 
the  j)seudo'Dionysius  Areopagita  published  a  formal 
theory  on  the  subject. 

Reference.     Dionys,  Areop.  de  Hierarchia  coelesti. 

Sec.  40.  Invocation  of  angels. 
However  much  the  ancient  churches  might  respect 
the  angels,  the  proofs  of  their  praying  to  them  are,  at 
least,  not  certain.  The  first  intimation  of  it,  is  to  be 
found,  in  Ambrose  :(1)  and  yet  in  his  age,  and  even  after- 
wards, opinions  against  it  are  to  be  met  with.  Grego- 
ry[2)  the  Great  believed,  that  the  angels  were  worship- 
ped in  the  times  of  the  Old  Testament;  but  not,  that 
christians  should  worship  them. 

(\j  de  Viduis  ;  Opp.  T.  I.  p.  146. 

(2)  Expos,  in  Cant.  Cant.  c.  8.  Opp.  T.  II.  p.  56. 

See  Euseb.  Praep.  Evan.  VII.  c.  15.  Athanas.  contra 
Arian.  Orat.  IV.  Council  of  Laodocea,  Can.  35.  in 
Mansi  Concil.  T.  U.  p.  570.  Epiphan.  Haeret. 
LXXIX.  n.  5  and  7. 


44 


Sec.  41.  Apostacy  of  Angels. 
That  there  were  certain  spirits,  wicked  by  nature,  and 
of  whom  God  was  not  the  creator ;  was  maintained  by 
some  Gnostic  sects,  by  the  Manichaens,  and  by  the  Pria- 
cilianists.  But  in  opposition  to  these  sects,  the  catholic 
church  maintained,  that  the  devil  and  his  angels  were 
creatures,  whom  God  created  holy,  and  who  had  plunged 
themselves  into  sin  and  wretchedness,  by  their  own  vol- 
untary act.  Respecting  the  first  transgression  of  the 
devil,  there  were  different  opinions ;  yet  the  belief,  that 
many  of  the  angels  sinned,  by  having  intercourse  with 
the  daughters  of  men,  was  very  general,  in  the  early 
ages(l)  ;  and  was  first  controverted  hy  John  ChrysostorUj 
Augustine^  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  and  Theodoret. 

(1)  So  thdught  Eusebius,  Praep.  Evan.  V.  c.  4.  Ambrose,. 
de  Noe  et  area.  c.  4,  and  Sulpicius  Severus,  Hist.  Sa- 
cra I.  c.  3. 

Sec.  42.  Power  and  influenee  of  evil  spirits. 
The  early  christians  had  terrific  conceptions  of  the 
power  of  demons  ;  yet  they  did  not  suppose  it  to  be  un- 
limited, but  regarded  it  as  controled  by  God.  The  whole 
worship  of  the  pagans,  they  considered  as  paid  to  de- 
mons, and  as  instituted  by  them.  The  persecutions  of 
the  christians,  the  establishment  of  heresies,  and  innu- 
merable temptations  to  sin,  were  attributed  to  their  in- 
fluence. Such  as  were  not  christians,  were  supposed  to 
be  all  under  the  dominion  of  the  devil;  who  had  no 
power  over  christians,  without  their  consent,  and  who  took 
to  flight  whenever  they  prayed  or  made  the  sign  of  the 
cross. 

Sec  43.     The  prospects  of  evil  spirits. 

That  punishment  and  misery  would  be  the  lot  of  the 

devil  and  the  demons,  was  not  doubted  at  all.     That 

they  might  one  day  be  reclaimed  and  become  happy, 

was  admitted  by  Origen  ;  but,  though  some  respectable 


OP    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  45 

fathers,  &s  Didymus  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  embraced 
the  same  opinion,  it  was  rejected  by  most  of  the  fathers, 
was  violently  assailed  by  Theophilus^  Jerome,  and  Au- 
gustine, and  was  proscribed  by  the  Emperor  Justinian.(l) 

(!)  See  the  references,  above,  Sec.  33. 


CHAPTER  III. 

'i'HE    TRUTH    OF    THE    CHRISTIAN    RELIGION. 

Sources  of  our  information.  The  Gr.  Apologists  ;  namely, 
Justin  Martyr^  ^PP«  Tatian,  Orat.  Athenagoras,  Le- 
gatio  ;  Theophilus,  ad  Aotolyc.  Libri  IJL  Hermias, 
Irrisio  gentil.  Philosoph.  ed,  Benedict,  (by  Prudentius 
Maran.)  Hagae  Com.  1742.  Also  Clemens  Alex.  Ex- 
hort, ad  Graec.  Tertullian,  Apologet.  Minucius  Fe- 
lix, Octavius ;  Cyprian,  de  Idolor.  vanitate ;  Arnohius, 
adv.  Gentes,  Libri  VII.  Lactantius,  Instit.  divin.  Li- 
bri VII.  and  Epitome;  Athanasius,  Oiat.  contra  Gent. 
Eusehius  Caesar,  Praeparatio  Evan.  Libri  XV.  and  De- 
monstratio  Evan.  Libri  X.  Jul.  Firm.  Maternus,  de 
Errore  profanor.  gentium.  Ambrose  in  Symmach.  Epp. 
II.  Augustine,  dc  Civitate  Dei,  Libri  XXII.  Tkeodo^ 
ret,  Graecanicor,  morbor.  curatio.  Origen,  adv.  Celsuni, 
Libri  VII ;  and  Cyril,  contra  Jul.  Libri  X. 

Histories  written.  Ck.  F.  Eisenlohr,  Argumenta  ab 
Apologetis  Secul.  II.  ad  confirmandam  religionis  Christ, 
veritatem  ac  praestantiam,  contra  Gentiles  usurpata  : 
Tubing,  1797.  4to. 

History  of  apologetics  ;  (in  German,)  by  H,  G.  Tzschir- 
ner,  I.  vol.  L^ps.   1805. 

Sec.  44. 
All  the  preceding  doctrines  were  received  by  the 
christians,  though  with  some  modifications,  entirely  from 
the  Jews.  But  new  fields  of  investigation  opened,  in  the 
<:ontests  with  the  pagans,  as  the  rapid  spread  of  Christian- 
ity called  forth  their  opposition.     A  series  of  apologists 


46  muenscher's  elements 

attempted,  to  evince  the  absurdity  of  the  pagan  religions, 
and  the  vast  superiority  of  Christianity  ;  and  likewise  to  re- 
pel the  attacks  of  the  pagans.  The  controversy  with 
the  Jews,  was  less  important;  being  nearly  confined  to  the 
interpretation  of  the  ancient  predictions,  respecting  the 
Messiah. 

Sec.  45.  Attacks  on  Paganism, 
The  christian  Apologists  assailed  the  popular  idolatry, 
with  great  force  ;  exposed  its  absurdities ;  and  explained 
the  prodigies  and  oracles,  by  which  it  was  supported,  to 
to  be  works  of  evil  spirits.  Nor  did  they  spare  the  doc- 
trines of  the  philosophers;  but  represented  them,  as 
partly  borrowed  from  the  holy  scriptures  of  the  Jews, 
and  partly,  as  unsuccessful  attempts  to  explain,  in  some 
tolerable  manner,  the  popular  religions.  The  philoso- 
phers were  held  up  to  distrust ;  on  account  of  their  dis- 
agreement in  sentiments,  and  their  hypocrisy,  in  taking 
part  in  that  idolatry  which  they  secretly  despised  and  ri- 
diculed. 

Sec.  46.  The  e vidences  of  Christianity. 
Besides  the  remark  occasionally  made,  that  it  w'as 
safer,  to  embrace  Christianity  than  to  reject  it;  the  ancient 
divines  considered  the  internal  excellence,  and  the  ef- 
fects of  Christianity,  as  the  principal  grounds  for  believ- 
ing in  it.  They  accordingly  compared  the  christian 
doctrines  with  the  sayings  of  the  most  distinguished  pa- 
gan sages ;  sometimes,  to  show  their  striking  coincidence, 
and  sometimes,  to  make  the  visible  superiority  of  the  for- 
mer more  glaring.  They  appealed  to  what  Christianity 
had  done,  and  was  able  to  do,  for  elevating  the  minds  of 
men;  and  they  adduced,  as  decisive  proofs  of  this,  the 
constancy  of  the  martyrs,  and  the  strict  morality  of  the 
ascetics. 

Sec  47.     Prophecy  and  Miracles, 
On  the  prophecies,  particularly  those  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, the  christian  divines,  (with  the  exception  of  the 
Gnostics  and  Manichaeans)  laid  great  stress.     The  Sibyl- 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  47 

line  Oracles  also,  and  other  similar  spurious  works,  were 
sometimes  cited  for  confirmation.  Some  of  them  at- 
tempted to  describe  the  points  of  disagreement,  between 
the  divine  predictions  and  those  of  Demons.  The  proof 
from  miracles  was  likewise  often  brought  forward ;  and  it 
was  vindicated,  against  the  objection  that  Demons  could 
also  work  miracles,  and  that  ApoUonius  of  Tyanea  per- 
formed as  great  wonders  as  Jesus  Christ  did.  The  con- 
tinuance of  miraculous  powers  in  the  christian  churches, 
was  generally  believed.  Augustine  was  the  first  that  at- 
tempted to  define,  accurately,  a  miracle. 

Sec.  48.  Other  external  proofs. 
The  christians  urged  the  antiquity  of  their  faith,  as 
proof  of  its  truth.  For  this  purpose,  they  sometimes  ap- 
pealed to  the  testimony  of  ancient  pagan  writers,  who  had 
taught  the  unity  of  God ;  and  many  of  them  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  make  use  of  supposititious  books.  At  other  times, 
they  alleged,  that  the  substance  of  their  religion  was 
taught,  in  the  Old  Testament,  long  before  the  pagan  wri- 
ters lived.  Likewise  the  elevated  character  of  Jesus, 
which  excluded  all  suspicion  of  imposture,  and  the  credi- 
bility of  the  Aposdes,  were  adduced  as  arguments.  Last- 
ly, it  was  maintained  that  the  extraordinary  success,  with 
which  their  doctrine  was  propagated^  by  indigent  fisher- 
men, was  inexplicable,  if  this  doctrine  was  not  the  truth 
of  God,  and  attended  with  the  power  of  God. 

Sec.  49.  Objections  to  Christianity. 
Not  only  were  there  widely  extended  popular  prejudi- 
ces against  Christianity,  which  the  Apologists  endeavored 
to  do  away;  hut  di  Celsus,  a  Porphyry^  an  Hierocles,  and 
the  Emperor  Julian,  composed  written  attacks  on  Chris- 
tianity. A  part  of  these  objections  to  the  christian  doc- 
trine, respected  its  origination.  It  was  urged  against  it, 
that  it  was  derived  from  the  barbarians ;  that  it  was  set 
up  by  insignificant  and  ignorant  men ;  and  that  it  was 
strange,  God  should  not  have  communicated  to  mankind, 
at  an  earlier  period,  a  doctrine  of  so  much  pretended 
value. 


48  MUENSCHEll's    ELEMENTS 


Sec.  50.  Objections  to  the  nature  of  the  christian  rt" 
ligion,  and  to  its  sacred  books. 
Christianity  was  sometimes  assailed,  on  the  grounds, 
of  its  requiring  of  men  a  blind  faith,  of  advancing  fabulous 
and  absurd  notions,  and  of  being  prejudicial  to  the  state, 
and  making  bad  citizens.  To  the  sacred  books,  it  was 
objected,  that  the  style  of  them  was  inelegant ;  and  that 
they  contained  contradictions  ;  as  well  as  other  things  un- 
worthy of  God,  which  the  christians  were  unable  to  con- 
ceal, except  by  forced  interpretations. 

Sec.  51.  Objections  to  the  conduct  and  the  influence 
of  Christians, 
The  christians  themselves  were  sometimes  charged, 
with  receiving  all  sorts  of  characters  into  their  societies  ; 
with  being  disunited  among  themselves  ;  with  separating 
from  all  other  men,  in  the  insolence  of  their  pride  ;  and 
with  bidding  welcome  to  death,  in  the  obstinacy  of  their 
fanaticism.  Still  more  frequently  was  it  asserted,  that 
the  superior  excellence  of  paganism  was  apparent,  in  the 
success,  which  had  attended  the  Romans ;  and  that  the 
worthlessness  of  Christianity  was  visible,  in  the  misfortunes 
of  its  professors ;  and  in  the  continual  and  manifest  de- 
cline of  the  Roman  empire,  since  the  introduction  of 
Christianity.  This  last  objection,  Augustine  and  Orosius 
deemed  worthy  of  an  extended  examination. 

Sec.  52.  JVeglect  of  Apologetics. 
After  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  little  attention 
was  given  to  the  evidences  of  Christianity ;  because,  it  had 
no  longer  dangerous  opposers ;  and  because  learning  de- 
clined, and  a  blind  faith  became  more  and  more  prevalent. 
Yet  against  the  Jews,  polemics  were  sometimes  resorted 
to,  without  effect. 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  4^ 

CHAPTER  lY. 

THE    BEING    AND    CHARACTER    OF    GOD. 

Historian,     Chr.  Fr.  Rosier,  D.  Fhilosopliia  veteris  eccle- 
siae  de  Deo  ;  Tubing.  1782.  4lo. 

Sec.  53.  Occasions  for  attention  to  the  subject. 
The  efforts  made,  to  establish  the  truth  and  divinity  of 
the  christian  religion,  necessarily  led  to  a  careful  investi- 
gation of  the  doctrine  of  a  God.  For  the  christians 
wished,  on  the  one  hand,  to  free  themselves  from  the  sus^ 
picion  of  atheism ;  and  on  the  other,  to  establish  the  ex- 
cellence of  their  religion,  by  showing,  that  it  inculcated 
more  worthy  conceptions  of  God,  than  the  heathen  poly- 
theism. Moreover,  some  heretical  sects  advanced  notions, 
concerning  God,  creation  and  providence,  which  contra- 
vened the  general  creed  ;  and  which  called  for  a  confuta- 
tion from  the  catholics. 

Sec  54.  Evidences  for  the  existence  of  Ood, 
Although  the  fathers  considered  all  true  knowledge  of 
God,  as  derived  from  a  divine  revelation ;  yet  they  admit- 
ted, that  reason  also  affords  satisfactory  evidence  of  the 
existence  of  God.  They  most  frequently  appealed  to  the 
order  and  manifest  design,  discoverable  throughout  nature, 
as  the  ground  of  belief  in  the  existence  of  a  wise  Crea- 
tor and  Governor.  They  moreover  appealed,  frequently, 
to  the  innate  idea  of  a  God,  in  the  soul,  and  to  the  consent 
of  all  nations.  The  former,  or  cosmological  proof,  was 
advanced  by  Diodorus(\)  of  Tarsus;  and  the  latter,  or 
proof  from  the  general  idea  of  an  existing  Deity,  engaged 
the  attention  of  Augustine(2)  and  Boethius,[2) 

(1)  SeePkotius,  Biblioth.  Cod.  223.  p.  662. 

(2)  de  Libero  Arbitrio  L.  II.  c.  5 — 16, 

(S)  de  Consolat.  Philos.  L,  III.  prosa  10.  p.  164,  166, 


oO  i/uenscher's  elements 


Seg.  55.   Unity  of  God. 

The  christians  had  to  defend  the  doctrine  of  one  God, 
Jirsty  in  opposition  to  the  Pagan  polytheism :  and  for  this 
purpose,  they  urged,  that  the  idea  of  a  supreme  Being, 
excluded  3\\  participaters  with  him  ;  they  also  urged,  that 
the  unity  of  the  world,  indicated  to  us  one  sole  author  of 
it ;  and  they  likewise  argued,  from  the  consent  of  the  most 
respectable  Pagan  philosophers.  They  had,  secondly, 
to  contend  against  the  dualism  of  the  Gnostics  and  Mani- 
chaeans;  and  therefore  labored  to  evince  the  absurdity  of 
supposing  two  Gods,  an  evil  and  a  good  one.(l)  And, 
thirdly,  they  did  not  neglect  to  vindicate  their  doctrine  of 
a  Trinity,  from  the  charge  of  being  inconsistent  with  pure 
monotheism. 

(1)  TitffS,  f)f  Bostrn,  rnntra  Manichaeos,  L,  f,  in  Basnagii 
Monum.  T.  I.  p.  63  &c. 

Sec.  56.  The  nature  of  God. 

The  ancient  fathers  vied,  in  their  efforts,  to  describe  in 
the  strongest  terms,  the  infinite  greatness  and  boundless 
majesty  of  God.  No  w^ords,  said  they,  can  express  the 
greatness  of  God.  No  description  is  adequate  to  it.  He 
is  above  all  beings;  and,  as  the  pseudo-Dyonisius  asserts, 
above  all  existence.  Although  Melito,  (I)  TertuU 
Uan,(2)  Audiits,(2)  and  numerous  Monks  of  Egypt,  as- 
cribed something  corporeal  to  God ;  yet  the  others  held, 
tliat  he  was  uncorporeal ;  and  at  times,  that  he  was  the 
only  uncorporeal  being.  And  after  all,  it  often  appears, 
tliat  it  was  very  difficult,  for  the  fathers,  to  exclude  all  no- 
tions of  extension  from  their  ideas  of  God. 

(1)  See  Origen,  in  Genes.  0pp.  T.  II.  p.  25. 

(2)  de  Carne  Christi,  c.  11.  adv.  Prax.  c.  7. 

(3)  See  Epiphanius,  Haer.  LXX.  and  Theodorety  Haeret. 
fab.  L.  IV.  c.  10. 


OF    DOGxMATIC    HISTORT,  51 


Sec.  57.  Investigations  of  the  attributes  of  God, 
The  notion  of  Origen,  that  God's  knowledge  and  power 
are  not  absolutely  boundless,  was  universally  rejected,  by 
the  succeeding  lathers.  The  eternity  of  God,  was  sup- 
posed to  exclude  all  ideas  of  succession.  Efforts  were 
made,  to  show  how  the  freedom  of  human  actions,  can 
consist  with  the  foreknowledge  of  God.  Investigations 
were  also  entered  into,  respecting  the  will,  and  the  recti- 
tude, of  God. 

Sec,  58.   Creation  of  the  world. 

Sources  of  information.  Basil,  in  Hexaemeron  :—-Am6ro5e* 
in  Hexaem. — Gregory  o^ Nyssdi,  in  Hexaem. — Augustine, 
de  Genesi  contra  Manich.  and  de  Genesi  ad  literam  ;• — 
Zacharias,  de  Mundi  creatione,  contra  Philosophos  ; — 
Joannes  Philoponus,  de  Creatione  mundi. 

The  belief,  that  God  was  the  Creator  of  the  world,  was 
of  vast  importance,  in  the  view  of  christians  ;  and  the  dis- 
sent of  the  Grecian  philosophers,  and  of  the  Gnostics,  from 
this  tenet,  was  the  occasion  of  their  carefully  investigating 
the  doctrine.  The  first  proposition  they  advanced,  was, 
that  not  any  subordinate  being  or  Demiurge,  but  the  su- 
preme God,  the  Father  of  Jesus  Christ,  created  the  world, 
by  his  Son.  To  this  proposition,  they  added  a  second, 
that  not  only  the/o?'m,  but  the  matter  of  the  world,  origi- 
nated from  God.  Both  these  were  maintained  by  Ter* 
tullian,  against  Hermogenes,  The  peculiar  idea  of  Ori- 
gen,  that  there  was  a  series  of  worlds,  either  created, 
or  without  beginning ;  was  contested  by  Methodius,  and 
rejected  by  the  subsequent  fathers. 

Sec.  59.  The  design  of  Creation. 
A  third  proposition,  advanced  respecting  creation,  was, 
that  God  was  not  merely  the  author,  but  the  voluntary 
author,  of  the  world.  He  gave  existence  to  the  world, 
it  was  stated,  being  moved  by  his  goodness,  or  on  our  ac- 
count.    The  creation  of  the  world  of  spirits,  was  some- 


52  muenscher's  elements 

times,  distinguished  from  the  creation  of  this  material 
world.  And  Origen  regarded  the  latter,  as  designed  for 
the  residence  of  the  spirits,  which  once  were  equal  with 
the  others,  but  now  were  to  be  punished  for  sins  they  had 
committed.  The  idea  was  attacked  by  Methodius,  be- 
came more  and  more  regarded  as  erroneous,  and  in  the 
sixth  century  was  pronounced  heresy.  The  Mosaic  ac- 
count of  the  creation,  was  sometimes,  explained  allegor- 
ically;  but  more  frequently,  was  regarded  as  explicit  his- 
tory. 

Sec  60.  Divine  Providence. 

Sources  of  our  information.  John  Chrysostom,  de  Provi- 
dentia  Lihri  111; — Theodoret,  Or diixones  X.  de  Providen- 
tia  ; — Salvian,  de  Gubernatione  Dei  Liber. 

The  doctrine  of  God's  providence,  was  likewise  of  very 
great  importance,  in  the  view  of  christians.  They  vindi- 
cated it,  against  the  Epicurean  notions  ;  against  the  notion 
of  an  irresistible  fate;  and  against  the  supposed  influence 
of  the  stars.  Much  the  same  arguments  were  used,  in 
support  of  tliis  doctrine,  as  for  the  existence  of  God. 
The  peculiar  sentiments  were,  that  several  of  the  fathers 
conceived  the  angels  to  be  the  instruments,  by  which  God's 
providence  over  particular  individuals  and  countries  was 
executed;  and  that  Jerome{l)  did  not  extend  God's  pro- 
vidence to  individual  brutes,  but  only  to  the  species  of 
tliem. 

(!)  Comraenlin  Abac.  c.  1.  Opp.  T.  VI.  p.  148. 

Sec.  6J.  Theodicee,  or,  origin  of  evil. 
To  explain  the  origin  of  sin  in  the  world,  the  Gnostics 
and  the  Manichaeans  brought  forward  their  peculiar  no- 
tion, of  two  original  Beings ;  and  toward  this  idea,  Lac- 
tantius{l)  made  some  approaches.  The  other  catholic 
fathers  took  the  ground,  that  God  could  not  be  the  author 
of  evil ;  and  they  maintained,  that  evil  proceeded  from 
the  will  of  free  agents,  with  God's  permission ;  and  that 


OP    DOGMATIC    HISTORY*  53 

physical  evils  are  not  to  be  accounted  evil,  being  suspended 
over  us  for  our  best  good.  Origen{2),  in  particular,  con- 
sidered all  evils  as  punishments,  which  human  souls  had 
merited  while  in  their  previous  state. 

(1)  Instit.  div.  II.  8,  and  de  Ira  Dei  c.  13. 

(2)  de  Princip.  II.  c.  9.  and  III.  c.  6  &c. 


CHAPTER  V. 

DOCTRINE    OF    THE    TRINITY. 

Historians  of  it.  George  Bull,  Defensio  fidei  Nicaenae  ; 
and  Judicium  ecclesiae  catholicae  de  necessitate  cre- 
dendi,  quod  Dominus  noster  J.  C.  sit  verus  Deus ; — in 
Bp.  Bull's  Works,  edited  by  I.  E.  Grabe  ;  Lend.  1703. 
Fol. — Lucae  MelUer,  {Sam.  Crell.)  Fides  primorum 
Christianorum  ;  Lond.  1697.  8vo.  Tractatus  III;  quo- 
rum primus  Antinicaenismus  dicitur ;  in  secundo — Re- 
sponsio — ad  Bulli  defensionem;  authore  Gilherto  ClerJce, 
Argumentum  postremi,  vera  et  antiqua  fides  dedivinitate 
Christi,  asserta  contra  Bulli  judicium  ;  (Lond.)1695.  8vo. 
Disquisiliones  modestae  in  Bulli  defensionem  fidei  Nicae- 
nae; authore  Daniele  Withhy,  ed  2.  Lond.  1720. 

La  Platonisme  devoile,  ou  Essai  touchant  le  Verbe  Platoni- 
cien  ;  a  Colone,  1700.  8vo.  Also  in  a  Gei^man  transla* 
tion,  with  an  Appendix  ;  by  J.  Fr.  Chr.  Laffler,  2d  ed. 
1792.  Svo. 

(J.  A.  Stark,)  Essay  of  a  History  of  Arianism ;  (in  Ger- 
man,) Berlin.  1783.  2  vol.  8vo. 

Ch.  Dan.  Ant.  Martini,  Essay  of  a  philosophical  history  of 
the  doctrine  of  the  Divinity  of  Christ,  in  the  IV.  first  cen- 
turies from  the  christian  era  ;  (in  German,)  1st  vol.  Ros- 
tock and  Lips.  1801.  8vo. 

Historical  account  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  (Ger- 
man,) in  W.  C.  L.  Ziegler's  theolog*  Abhandlungen, 
vol.  L  Goting*  1791. 

6 


54  muenscher's  elements 


Sec.  62.  The  general  doctrine  of  Christians, 
According  to  the  instructions  of  Christ,  (Matt,  xxviir. 
19,)  the  christians  professed  faith  in  the  Father,  the  Son, 
and  the  Holy  Ghost.  The  Catholic  christians  rejected, 
alike,  the  opinions  of  the  Ebionites,  that  Jesus  was  a  mere 
man ;  and  the  opinion  of  the  Gnostics,  that  he  was  an 
Aeon,  who  descended  from  the  Pleroma  and  became  visi- 
ble to  mortals.  Respecting  the  consummate  perfection 
and  majesty  of  the  Father,  there  was  no  disagreement 
among  them ;  but  the  more  they  labored  to  define  the  na- 
ture of  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  the  mode  of  their 
relation  to  the  Father,  the  more  they  disagreed.  Yet  all 
their  differences  may  be  traced  to  the  influence  of  one  or 
the  other  of  two  fundamental  ideas ;  the  one,  that  of  a 
Unity,  the  other,  that  of  a  Trinity, 

Reference.  Some  remarks  on  the  most  early  history  of  the 
doctrine  ofthe  Trinity  ;  (in  German,)  by  J.  B.  C.Schmidt: 
in  his  Bibliothek  fiir  Krstick  and  Exeorese,  vol.  II.  P.  II. 
Herborn  &c.  1798. 

Sec.  63.   Unitarians, 

Various  christians  made  it  their  great  object,  so  to  ex- 
plain the  relations  of  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  as  not 
to  endanger  the  unity,  and  the  sole  supremacy  of  God* 
They  believed, this  danger  would  be  best  avoided,  by  con- 
sidering the  Son  and  the  Spirit,  not  as  disiinct  persons, 
but  as  the  powers  and  energies  of  the  Father.  So  thought 
Praxeas[l) ;  and  after  him,  JVo'etus  and  SabelKus ;  with 
whom  also,  Paul  of  Samosata  agreed,  in  substance. 
The  adherents  to  this  idea,  were  called  Patripassians;  and 
were  subsequently  more  regarded  as  errorists. 

(I)  Tertull.  adv.  Prax.  c.  1,  2. 

Note.  The  earliest  traces  of  this  mode  of  viewinsr  the  sub- 
ject, are  in  Justin  M.  Dial,  cum  Try  ph.  p.  221.  Whether 
Athenagoras  was  one  of  this  class,  deserves  inquiry.  See 
his  Legatio,  p.  802  ;  comp.  p.  286,  287. 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  55 


Sec.  64.  The  early  Trinitarians. 
The  Other  fathers,  as  Justin  Martyr(l),  Theophi- 
lus(2)  of  Antioch,  and  Tatian(S),  believed  that,  the  dis- 
tinctness of  the  Son  from  the  Father,  was  too  clearly 
taught  in  the  scriptures,  to  be  denied.  They  therefore 
maintained,  that  the  Son,  or  as  St.  John  called  him,  the 
divine  Logos,  was  from  eternity,  in  God,  as  an  attribute 
or  property ;  but  that,  before  the  creation,  he  proceeded 
forth  from  God,  according  to  his  good  pleasure  ;  and 
thenceforth  began  to  have  a  separate  existence  :  and  they 
elucidated  the  subject,  by  the  examples  of  words  enunci- 
ated, and  oi  fires  kindled.  According  to  them,  the  Son 
was  of  the  essence  of  the  Father;  yet  inferior  to  hira, 
and  a  visible  being.  Concerning  the  Holy  Ghost,  these 
fathers  expressed  themselves  less  distinctly;  yet  they 
seem  to  have  regarded  him,  as  a  distinct  subject  or 
person. 

(1)  Apol.  maj.  §  6.  p.  47.  ^ed.  Col.  p.  66.)  and  §  13.  p.  61, 

63^92.  Dial.  151,  152,  157,  158,  195,  222. 
(2>  ad  Autol.  Lib.  II.  p.  356,  360,  365. 
(3)  Orat.  p.  247,  248.  (ed.  Col.  p.  145.) 

Reference,  C,  A,  G.  KeiL  A  patristic  inquiry,  whether  the 
earliest  fathers  distinguished  between  the  Son  and  the  H. 
Spirit ;  and  what  views  they  had  of  the  subject ;  (in  Ger- 

^  man,)  in  /.  F.  Flatt's  Magazin  fiir  christl.  Dogmatik  und 
Moral.  Pt.  IV.  p.  34  &,c. 

Sec.  65.  Source  of  this  theory. 
To  this  theory  the  way  was  led,  by  the  explanation  of  the 
Logos  of  John,  by  means  of  passages  in  the  Old  Testament; 
in  which  there  was  mention  of  the  creative  Power  of  God, 
(Gen.i.)  and  of  the  divine  Wisdom,  (Prov.  viii.  Ecclus.xxiv. 
Wisdom,  vii.)  Theophilus(l)  now  discriminated  be- 
tween theXo/o^  ivdiaklos  and  the  Xo/o^ 'rpo(pop»xoj  (the  Word 
inherent  and  the  Word  sent  forth :)  and  was  also  the  first, 
who  used  the  word  rpia^  (Trinity.)  The  Platonic  phi- 
losophy, (not  however  the  pure  Platonism,  but  that  which 


56 

was  combined  with  the  emination  system,  as  it  was 
taught  at  Alexandria,  and  as  Philo  had  before  exhibited 
it,)  led  them  to  discover  all  this,  m  the  Old  Testament. 

(1)  ad  Autol.  p.  266,  355,  360. 

Sec.  ^Q,  Irenaeusand  Tertullian, 
With  those  early  fathers,  Irenaeus(i)  agreed,  in  se- 
parating the  Son  and  the  Spirit  from  the  Father,  and  in 
considering  the  two  former,  as  inferior  to  the  latter;  but 
he  differed  from  them,  in  making  the  Son  co-eternal  with 
the  Father,  and  rejecting  all  further  inquiries  respecting 
his  origin.  Tertultian{2)  agreed  more  closely  with  those 
fathers;  yet  was  led  by  his  confutation  of  Praxeas,  to  car- 
ry out  their  system  more  perfectly.  He  taught  a  Trinity, 
in  which  the  members  or  persons,  were  indeed  equal,  in 
substance,  yet  so  subsecutive  to  each  other,  that  the  se- 
cond depended  on  the  first,  and  the  third  on  the  second. 
Against  the  objection,  that  the  unity  of  God  was  thus  im- 
paired, he  believed  that  he  guarded  sufficiently,  by  repre- 
senting the  Father,  to  be  the  sole  original  source  of  all 
things,  and  even  of  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost.  The 
subsequent  Latin  Fathers,  Cypr{an(3)  and  JVovatian(4), 
have  nothing  peculiar,  on  this  doctrine:  and  Lactantius[b) 
explains  the  origination  of  the  Son,  in  a  very  sensual 
manner, 

(1)  adv.  Haeres.  I.  c.lO,  26.  II.  13,25,  28,  30.  III.  6,  18, 
19,  IV.  6,  7,20.  V.  1,  18. 

(2)  adv.  Praxeam. 

(3)  Testim.  adv.  Jud.  II.  c.  1—8.  Ep.  73,  ad  Jubai.  p.202, 
203.  Ep.  74.  ad  Pompei.  p.  213. 

(4)  de  Trinitate. 

(5)  Instit.  divin.  II.  8.  and  IV.  6,  8,  29. 

Sec.  67.   Clement  and  Origen. 

Clement(i)  of  Alexandria,  describes  the  Son  as  a  being 
who,  in  perfection,  comes  near  the  Father,  and  is  the  very 
image  of  him ;  aad  who  is  not  confined  to  place,  but  oni-- 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  57 

nipresent.  Origen(2)  defended  the  pre-existenee  of  the 
Son,  against  Beryllus  of  Bostra ;  and  he  subjoined  to 
the  views  of  his  preceptor,  the  idea  of  an  eternal  genera- 
tion. Yet  he  did  not  reject  the  subordination  of  the  Son 
to  the  Father ;  which  he  indicated,  by  applying  to  them 
the  titles,  6  kog  and  6sos  ( God  and  a  God;)  by  discriminating 
the  part  of  each  in  creation,  in  the  use  of  viro  and  ^la  (by 
and  through ;)  and  by  directing  to  pray  unto  (•rpo^)  the 
one,  by  or  through  (^la)  the  other.  The  Holy  Spirit,  he 
held  to  be  a  distinct  person^  produced  by  the  Son,  and 
inferior  to  him. 

(1)  Cohort,  ad  Gr.  p.  78,  82,  86.  Paedag.  I.  c.  6.  p.  123. 
Strom.  IV.  p.  635.  V.  p.  654,  699,  710.  VI.  p.  769.  VII. 
p.  831,  832. 

(2)  Opp.  ed.  de  la  Rue.  Tom.I.  p.  47,  48,  53,  55,  59,  62, 
579,  750.  11.  p.  1.  Ill,  50  &c.  60,235. 

Sec.  68.  Dionysius  Alex,  and  Dionys.  Rom, 

The  disciples  of  Origen,  appear  to  have  adhered  to  Aw 
views  respecting  the  Logos,  except  only  in  regard  to  the 
eternal  generation.  One  o(  them,  Dionysius{l)  Bishop 
of  Alexandria,  wished  to  express  strongly,  that  the  Son 
was  distinct  from  the  Father,  in  opposition  to  Sabellius  ; 
and  without  intending  to  introduce  any  new  doctrine,  he 
stated  the  Son,  to  be  a  creature^  and  not  to  possess  the 
same  essence  with  the  Father,  and  to  have  had  a  begin- 
ning of  existence.  But  such  assertions  now  awakened 
attention,  and  gave  offence.  Dionysius(2)  Bishop  of 
Rome,  thought  it  his  duty,  to  oppose  these  opinions;  and 
he  insisted,  that  the  Son  was  not  created,  but  begotten  ; 
that  his  existence  had  no  commencement ;  and  that  he 
was  one  with  the  Father.  This  induced  the  Bishop  of 
Alexandria,  to  explain  himself.  He  said  that  he  wished 
to  discriminate  the  Son  from  the  Father,  but  not  to  sun- 
der them ;  that  the  Son  did  always  exist ;  that  he  de- 
clined using  the  word  o/xooutfioj,  because  it  did  not  occur  in 
the  scriptures,  but  the  meaning  of  it  he  did  not  reject. 

6* 


58 

(1)  See  AthanasiuSi  de  Senlentia  Dionys.  contra  Ariancs  ; 
in  Athanas.  Opp.  T.  I.  p.  551  &:c.  ed.  Col. 

(2)  See  Athanas ius,   de  Decret.  Syn.   Nicaenae,  p.    275, 
276. 

Sec.  69.  Rise  of  the  Avian  controversy. 
The  discussions  at  Alexandria,  respecting  the  nature 
of  the  Son  of  God,  produced  in  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  century  a  violent  contest.  Arius  was  dissatisfied 
with  the  old  views,  that  the  Son  was  from  eternity,  in  the 
Father ;  and  that  before  the  creation  he  proceeded  forth 
from  the  Father ;  because  such  an  emanation  implied 
that,  God  was  corporeal  and  divisible  into  parts.  He 
therefore  taught,  that  the  Son  had  a  beginning  of  his  ex- 
istence, and  was  created  by  the  Father,  out  of  nothing, 
according  to  his  free  choice.  His  Bishop,  Alexander,  op- 
posed him ;  in  order  to  maintain  the  eternal  generation  of 
the  Son  from  the  Father,  and  divest  him  of  the  appel- 
lation of  a  creature. 

Sec.  70.  The  council  of  JVice. 
The  contest  between  the  two  men,  in  its  progress,  be- 
came obstinate ;  and  as  each  of  them  found  adherents,  it 
spread  over  the  whole  Roman  empire.  In  vain  the 
Emperor  Constantine  attempted  to  calm  the  storm ; 
and  therefore,  he  at  last  called  the  general  council, 
which  met  at  Nice,  A.D.  325.  There  the  doctrine  of 
Arius  was  rejected  ;  and  a  Confession  of  Faith  was  drawn 
up,  which  asserted  that  the  Son  was  oiJ.oov(fiog  (of  the  same 
essence)  with  the  Father,  and  begotten  of  the  essence  of 
the  Father.  By  the  emperor's  command,  all  Bishops 
were  obliged  to  subscribe  to  this  creed. 

The  Nicene  Creed.  nir^iJOM^^v  ^'^  ^^^  ®^ov  ifarspu  nravro- 
xparopot,  <avrwv  opa^wv  ts  xa»  dopaTWv  iroiriTriv.  Kat  hg  Iva 
xupiov  lYi<fo\jv  Xpig'ov,  tov  ujov  tov  6so'j,  YSvvr,&svTa  sx  rov  -^arpo^ 
jXovoysvT),  tout'  g5"jv,  ix  Tvig  outfia^  tou  crarpoj:,  Gsov  ex  Gsou, 
4>w^  sx  <I>a)7og,  ©sov  dX7]5jvov  sx  ©sou  ccXtj^jvou,  ysvvri'^svTCL 
Im  cfoirj^^vra,  ojuioouo'iov  tw  -TTaTpi,  61  ou  ra  cravra  sysvsro, 
roL  TS    £v  <w    oupavw  xai   <ra  sv  rrj  yji^    rov  dl   Tiixag   Tt\jg: 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTOKY.*  59 

ttv^pw-rou^,  xaj  8ia  ttjv  Tj/j^srspav  (fwri^pjav  xarsX^ovra,  xai 
(fapxw^cVTot,  £vav^pw'7rr](j'av7-a,  ';ra^ovTa  ycai  avatfravra  tt] 
rpjr/j  'JjfXspa,  avsX^^v^a  Si^  tou^  oupavou^,  xaj  £p;)^o|xsvov 
xpjvai  ^wv^ra^  xocj  vsxpou^.  Ken  sig  to  a^iov  "Tr-veu/xa.  Tou^ 
Sb  Xsyovrag,  o<ri  yjv  ij^otS  ots  o'ux  tjv,  xai  ^piv  ^svvv]Siy)vaj 
oux  ^v,  xai  on  s^  oux  ovtwv  j^svsto  '^  gf  STSpa^  u'n'o^atfswg 
^  outfiag  cpoL'^Kovroig  sivai,  r)  xtjo'tov  TpS'ff'T'ov  73  aXXoiwrov 
«rov  ujov  Tou  ©sou,  ava^s^Jt-arj^sj  tj  xa^oXtXTj  exxX-yjcfja. 

Reference.  W.  iWiin-sci^er'^  Examination  of  the  sense  of 
the  Nicene  Creed  ;  (in  German,)  in  Henke's  neuem  Ma- 
gazin  fur  Reliurionsphilosophie,  Exegese  und  Kirchenges- 
chichte,vol.Vn.  P.  11. 

Sec.  71.  Consequences  of  the  council. 
Most  of  the  Asiatic  bishops  were  dissatisfied  with  the 
Nicene  decisions,  and  particularly  with  the  likeness 
of  essence  (of^-oouCio^)  there  established.  Even  Consian- 
tine,  the  emperor,  in  the  later  years  of  his  life,  would  not 
insist  upon  those  decisions ;  and  his  son  Constantius, 
openly  favored  the  opposers.  Council  after  council  was 
held,  and  one  creed  after  another  drawn  up.  The  im- 
moveable firmness  of  Athanasius  only,  could  prevent  the 
Nicene  doctrine  from  sinking,  under  its  overpowering  ene- 
mies and  their  reiterated  assaults. 

Notices,  The  Antoichean  confession  was  formed  A.D. 
341.  The  long  {^axpog-ixog)  formula,  A.  D.  343.  The 
Council  of  Sardica  and  Philippopolis,  A.  D.  347.  The 
two  Creeds  of  Slrmium,  A.  D.  351,  357.  The  Coud- 
cil  of  Ancyra,  A.D.  358.  The  third  Sirmian  Creed,  and 
the  Councils  of  Rimini  and  Seleucia,  A.  D.  359. 

Sec.  72.     Arian  parties. 

The  opposers  of  the  Nicene  creed,  were  themselves 
divided  in  opinion.  The  pure  Arians,  at  the  head  of 
whom  were  A'etius  and  Eunomius,  considered  the  Son,  as 
the  most  exalted  creature  of  God  ;  and  in  essence,  unlike 
to  the  Father.  The  Semi-Arians,  as  they  were  de- 
nominated, acknowledged  the  Son  to  be,  of  like  essence 
(o/xojsCio^)  with  the  Father.     Others,  as  Cyril  of  Jerusa- 


60  muenscher's  elements 

lem — either  rejected  the  word  o^osiTio^  ;  or  explained  it, 
as  Eusebius  of  Caesarea,  according  to  their  own  views. 

Sec.  73.  Marcellus  and  Photinus, 
A  very  different  course  was  taken  by  Marcellus,  bish- 
op of  Ancyra,  and  his  disciple  Photinus,  bishop  of  Sir- 
mium ;  for  they,  like  Paul  of  Samosata,  distinguished 
the  Logos  from  the  Son  of  God;  and  explained  the  gen- 
eration of  the  latter,  as  being  nothing  but  his  assumption 
of  human  nature.  Marcellus  hereby  incurred  a  doubt- 
ful reputation  ;  and  Photinus  drew  on  himself  the  united 
condemnation  of  both  Arians  and  Catholics. 

References.  Eusebius,  contra  Marcel lum,  Lib.  U.  and  de 
Theologia  ecclesiastica  Lib.  III.  Marcelliana  ;  edidit  et 
ani  mad  vers,  instruxit,  Chr.  Hen.  G.  Rettberg^  Getting. 
1794.  8vo. 

Sec.  74.  Athanasian  system. 
Athanasius  not  only  held  firmly  to  the  Nicene  creed, 
as  the  foundation  of  orthodoxy,  but  he  attributed  to  it 
more,  than  it  properly  contained.  Ho  described  the  ge- 
neration* oiihe  Son,  as  being  an  eternal,  mysterious, opera- 
tion of  the  Father  ;  proceeding,  not  from  the  will,  but 
from  the  nature  of  the  Father ;  and  whereby,  the  son 
possessed  the  same  essence  with  the  Father.  He  it  was 
also,  that  felt  the  necessity  of  maintaining  the  equality  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  with  the  Father  and  the  Son,  (concern- 
ing which,  the  church  had  hitherto  defined  nothing,)  and 
of  requiring  the  profession  of  it,  as  a  mark  of  orthodoxy  ; 
after  the  year  362,  when  the  controversy  with  Macedo- 
nius  directed  attention  to  the  subject. 

Sec  75.  Triumph  of  this  doctrine. 
By  the  activity  and  prudence  of  Athanasius,  and  the 
zeal  and  influence  of  his  co-workers,  {Basil,  the  two 
Gregories,  Hilary,  and  Ambrose,)  and  the  disagreement 
among  the  Arians,  and  the  powerful  support  of  some  of 
the  emperors ;  this  doctrine  acquired  an  increasing  pre- 


I 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  6Jl 

ponderancy.  The  council  of  Constantinople  A. D.  381, 
condemned  the  Arians  and  Macedonians,  confirmed  the 
Nicene  creed,  and  made  some  additions  to  it,  the  most 
important  of  which  respected  the  doctrine  concerning 
the  Holy  Spirit. 

[nj^SuofJt/Sv  hs  TO  -cyvsufz-a  <ro  a^tov]  to  xupiov,  <ro  ^ow;roiov,  to  ix  tou 

•JfaTpO^    SX'TT'OpSUOfXSvoV,    TO     tfUV    fTOLTpl  XUl  IJIW  (J'U^'7r'potfJCUVJJ|llOVOV, 

xa»  (fuvSo^a^^o^s^oVy  to  XaXyjtfav  (5ja  twv  '7r'po(pTi<rwv. 

TAg  principal  writers  concerning  the  Son :  Atlianas, 
Expos,  fidei,  contra  Arianos  Oratt.  IV.  Hilary  of  Poic- 
tiers,  de  Trinit.  Lib.  X.  Basil  the  Great,  contra  Euno- 
niium,  Lib.  III.  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  contra  Eunom.  Lib. 
Xn.  Gregory  of  Nazianz.  Orationes  V.  de  Theologia. 
Ambrose,  de  Fide,  ad  Gratianum,  Lib.  V. 

Concerning  the  Holy  Ghost,  Athanas.  IV,  E{)p.  ad  Serapio- 
nem.  Basil,  de  Spiiitu  Sancto,  ad  Amphilochium  Li- 
ber.     Didymus,  de.  Sp.  S.     Ambrose,  de  Sp.  S. 

Sec.  76.  Fuller  statement  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 
In  accordance  with  the  Athanasian  doctrine,  the  unity 
of  essence,  and  the  trinity  of  persons,  in  the  Godhead,, 
were  maintained ;  and  in  relation  to  which,  the  words  oxxiioL 
and  v'Ko^adig  were  sometimes  used  as  synonymous,  and 
sometimes  as  differing  in  import.  Appropriate  attributes 
{l6mv\Tzg)  were  ascribed  to  each  Person ;  to  the  Father, 
his  being  unbegotten  (a/swyjCia)  ;  to  the  Son,  a  being  be- 
gotten (/svvTjCia) ;  to  the  Holy  Ghost,  procession  (^hifopsv- 
(fig,  §x'7r'gf/.-Xi^).  Respecting  the  procession  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  from  the  Father,  or  from  the  Father  and  the  Son. 
there  was  a  difference  of  opinion,  between  the  Greeks 
and  the  Latins  :  and  in  the  Council  of  Toledo,  A.D.  589, 
the  words  et  filio  were  added  to  the  Constantinopoli- 
tan  Creed. 

Reference,  J.  G.  Walch,  Historia  controversiae  Graeco- 
rum  et  Latinorum  de  proccssiorie  Spiritus  S.  Jenae, 
1751.  8vo.  Historia  succincta  controversiae  de  proces- 
sione  Spir.  Sancti ;  authore  Christ.  Matth.  Pfaff,  Tub, 
1749.  4to, 


\ 


62  muenscher's  elements 

Sec.  77.  Subsequent  statements. 
The  subsequent  writers  held  strongly,  to  this  system  of 
doctrine.  Yet  Augustine  had  something  peculiar ;  for 
he  effaced  the  traces  of  unlikeness  and  subordination, 
which  had  existed  from  before  the  times  of  the  Nicene 
Council ;  and  he  insisted  on  the  numerical  unity  of  the 
three  Persons.  In  accordance  with  his  views,  the  rela-  i 
tions  of  the  three  Persons  were  more  distinctly  set  forth,  j 
in  what  is  called,  the  Athanasian  Creed,  The  charge  j 
of  tritheism,  brought  against  certain  Monophysites,  as  1 
John  Askuanages  and  John  Philiponus^  arose  from  1 
philosophical  speculations,  and  rested  on  mere  inferences. 

Reference.     Augustine,  de  Trinitate  Libri  XV. 

Athanasian  Creed.  Quicunque  vult  salvus  esse,  ante  omnia 
opus  habet,  ut  leneat  catholicam  fidem,  Quam  nisi  quis- 
que  integram  inviolatamque  servaverit,  absque  dubio  in 
aeternum  peribit.  Fides  autem  catholica  haec  est,  ut 
unum  Deum  in  trinitate  et  trinitatem  in  unitate  vene- 
remur,  neque  confundentes  personas,  neque  substantiam 
geparantes.  Alia  enim  est  persona  patris,  alia  filii,  alia 
spiritus  sancti  ;  sed  patris  et  filii  et  spiritus  sancti 
una  est  divinitns,  aequalis  gloria  et  aequalis  majestas. 
Qualis  pater,  talis  filius,  talis  et  spiritus  sanctus.  In- 
creatus  pater,  increatus  filius,  increatus  spiritus  sanctus. 
Immeusus  pater,  immensus  filius,  immensus  et  spiritus 
sanctus.  Aelernus  pater,  aeternus  filius,  aeternus  et 
spiritus  sanctus;  ettamen  non  tres  aeterni  sed  unus  aeter- 
nus, sicut  non  tres  increati,  nee  tres  immensi,  sed  unus  in- 
creatus et  unus  immensus.  Similiter  oranipotens  pater,  om- 
nipotens  filius,  omnipotens  et  spiritus  sanctus;  et  tamen 
non  tres  omnipotentes,  sed  unus  omnipotens.  Ita  Deus 
pater,  Deus  filius,  deus  et  spiritus  sanctus;  et  tamen  non 
ires  dii,  sed  unus  est  Deus.  Ita  dominus  pater,  dominus 
filius,  dominus  et  spiritus  sanctus;  et  tamen  non  tres 
sunt  domini,  sed  unus  dominus.  Quia  sicut  singillatim 
unamquamque  personam  et  deum  et  dominum  confiteri 
Christiana  veritate  conipellimiir,  ita  tres  deosaut  dominos 
dicere  catholica  religione  prohibemur.  Pater  a  nullo  est 
factus  nee  ereatus  nee  genitus.  Filius  a  patre  solo  est, 
j}on  faetus,  non  ereatus  sed  genitus.     Spiritus  sanctus  a 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  63 

patre  et  filio,  non  factus  nee  creatus  nee  genitus  est,  sed  pro- 
cedens.  Unus  ergo  pater,  nee  tres  patres,  unus  filius,  non 
tres  filii,  unus  spiritus  sanctus,non  tres  spiritus  sancti.  Et  in 
hac  trinitate  nihil  prius  aut  posterius,  nihil  majus  aut  minus, 
sed  totae  tres  personae  coaeternae  sibi  sunt  et  coaequa- 
les.  Ita  ut  per  omnia,  sicut  jam  supra  dictum  est,  et  uni- 
tas  in  trinitate  et  trinitas  in  unitate  veneranda  sit.  Qui 
vult  ergo  salvus  esse,  ita  de  trinitate  sentiat. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

DOCTRINE    CONCERNING    THE    PERSON    OF    CHRIST* 

Sec.  78.     First  germs  of  it. 

The  early  catholic  fathers  had  to  contend,  against  the 
Ebionites,  and  against  the  Onostics,  The  former  held 
Christ,  to  be  a  mere  man ;  the  latter  regarded  him,  as 
having  no  part  in  humanity,  but  as  being  an  exalted  Spi- 
rit^ who  either  assumed  the  mere  appearance  of  a  bo- 
dy, or  brought  with  him  from  heaven  a  more  refined 
body.  According  to  the  catholic  doctrine,  both  these 
opinions  were  to  be  rejected  ;  and  yet  the  Alexandrians 
so  far  leaned  towards  Gnosticism,  as  to  deny  that  Christ's 
body  was  homogeneous  with  ours.  As  to  the  manner, 
in  which  the  divine  nature  was  united  with  the  human 
in  Christ,  very  indistinct  ideas  preva  led.  The  earliest 
fathers(l)  maintained  only,  that  the  divine  Logos  assu- 
med a  human  body,  A  human  soul  of  Christ,  was  first 
obscurely  mentioned,  by  TertuUian(2)  ;  afterwards,  a 
rational  soul  was  expressly  maintained,  by  Origen(^) : 
and  he  first  attempted,  to  set  forth  a  theory  respecting  the 
incarnation ;  namely,  that  the  Logos  united  himself  with 
a  rational  soul,  selected  on  account  of  its  pre-eminent  puri- 
ty ;  and  then,  by  means  of  this  soul,  joined  himself  to  a 
human  body. 

(1)    Munscher^s  Manual  of   dogm.    history,   vol.   II.   p. 
167,  &c. 


64  muenscher's  elements 

(2)  de  carne  Christi.  c.  11,  13,  and  adv.  Prax.  c.  16. 

(3)  contra  Cels.  II.  Sec.  9.  and  IV.  Sec.  15—19,  &c.  pas- 
sim.    dePrincip.  IL  c.  6. 

Reference.  G.  J.  Planck,  Observationes  quaedam  in  pri- 
mam  doctrinaede  naturis  Christi  historian).  Got.  1787 — 
89.  also,  in  the  Comrnentatt,  theol.  pul:>lished  by  Vel- 
thusen,  Kuinol  and  Rupert,  vol.  1.  p.  141  &c. 

Sec.  79.  "  Developement  of  it. 
Such  indefinite  conceptions  continued,  down  to  the 
fourth  century,  when  the  Arian  controversy  directed  at- 
tention to  the  subject;  for  the  Arians,  who  attributed  no 
human  soul  to  Christ,  drew  arguments  from  the  incarna- 
tion of  Jesus,  against  the  doctrine  of  the  catholics.  The 
cathohc  fathers,  at  first,  were  fluctuating  in  their  explana- 
tions. Appollinaris  bishop  of  Laodicea,  taught  that, 
the  Logos  assumed  only  two  of  the  three  parts  of  man, 
namely  a  body,  and  a  sensitive  soul ;  while  the  Logos 
supplied  the  place  of  the  third  part,  or  human  reason. 
Athanasius  maintained,  at  least  in  his  later  writings,  and 
at  the  Council  of  Alexandria  A.  D.  362,  that  Christ  pos- 
sessed a  rational,  human  soul.  The  opinion  of  Apolli- 
naris,  was  combatted  by  Gregory  of  Nazianzum,  and 
Gregory  o{  Nyssa;  and  was  condemned  by  Damasus, 
bishop  of  Rome,  and  by  the  general  council  at  Constanti- 
nople, A.  D.  381. 

Itcferences.  Atkanasius,  Ep.  ad  Epictetum.  Gregory  of  Nys- 
sa, Antirrheticiis  contra  Apollinarem.  Gregory  of  Naz. 
Epp.  ad  Cledoniuin.  sive  Oratt.  LI.  LII. 

Sec.  80.     The  natures  of  Christ. 

It  was  generally  acknowledged,  that  there  was  but  one 
Christ,  to  whom  belonged  both  divine  and  human  pro- 
perties. Their  care  to  maintain  the  unity  of  Christ,  in- 
duced some  fathers,  to  ascribe  to  him,  a  divine  nature 
which  became  man ;  and  this  phraseology,  which  was  used  - 
by  Athanasius  and  Apollinaris,  became  prevalent  in  m 
Egypt.  Other  fathers,  following  the  example  of  the  two 
GregorieSy  of  Nazianzum  and  Nyssa,  spoke  of  two  natures 


or  DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  66 

in  Christ ;  and  the  Antiochlan  divines,  Diodorus  of  Tar- 
sus, and  Theodorus  of  Mopsuestia,  made  the  distinction 
of  the  two  natures  very  prominent,  in  order  to  avoid  the 
idea  of  their  being  mixed  and  confounded. 

Sec.  81.  JVestorius  and  Cyril. 

After  a  contest  on  this  subject,  had  been  terminated  in 
the  West,  by  the  recall  of  Leporius ;  a  more  fearful  con- 
test broke  out,  between  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
and  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria.  JVestorius  of  Constan- 
tinople, having  given  offence  by  asserting,  that  Mary  ought 
not  to  be  called  (^soroxog)  the  mother  of  God',  Cyril  took 
occasion,  to  charge  him  with  dividing  Christ,  into  two 
persons;  and  incurred  the  accusation  against  himself,  of 
confounding  or  of  changing  the  natures  of  Christ.  The 
Roman  Bishop,  Coelestine,  took  the  side  of  Cyril ;  the 
Eastern  Bishops  were  for  Nestorius.  Reciprocated  ex- 
ecrations produced  the  highest  degree  of  bitterness. 

References.  Cyriili  Anathematismi,  cum  reprehensionibus 
Aiidreae  et  'I  iieodoreti,  et  Apoloj^ia  Cyriili  : — in  Mansi 
Collect.  iJcncil,  'V.  V.  p.  1.  and  JVe'^^om  Anathematismi  ; 
il>id.  T.  IV.  p.  1099.  'i'.  V.  p.  703,  748. 

Sec  82.  Council  of  Ephesus. 
The  Emperor  Theodosius,  attempted  to  end  the  strife, 
by  a  general  council,  which  he  assembled  at  Ephesus, 
A.  D.  431  ;  but  it  only  exasperated  the  parties,  and  se- 
parated the  Oriental  Bishops  from  the  Egyptian  party. 
At  last,  Cyril  resolved,  to  purchase  the  assent  of  the  An- 
tiochian  party  to  the  condemnation  of  Nestorius,  by  sub- 
scribing a  formula,  in  which  he  admitted  two  natures  in 
Christ.  On  these  terms,  the  peace  of  the  church  was  re- 
stored ;  yet  the  Persian  christians  became  a  separate 
community  ;   and  dissatisfaction  remained  on  both  sides. 

Sec.  83.   The  Councils  of  Ephesus  and  Chalcedon. 
In  the  attempt  to  force  the  Egyptian  form  of  the  doc- 
trine upon  the  whole  church,  Dioscurus  labored,  in  the 

7 


66  muenscher's  elements 

spirit  of  Cyril,  but  with  better  success.  A  controversy  which 
arose  at  Constantinople,  respecting  Eutyches,  afforded  hira 
an  opportunity,  in  a  new  general  council  at  Ephesus,  A.  D. 
449,  to  put  down  the  opposing  party,  although  the  Ro- 
man Bishop,  Leo  the  Great,  warmly  remonstrated.  Yet, 
soon  after,  his  hard  gained  victory  was  again  wrested  from 
him,  by  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  A.  D.  461 ;  and  a 
precise  formula,  in  regard  to  the  contested  points,  was 
established. 

References.  Leo  Magn,  Ep.  ad  Flavianum  :  ed.  Ilenke, 
Helmst.  1781,  also  in  his  Opusc.  Arademica,  Helinst. 
1802.  8vo. 

The  formula  of  Chalcedon  :  *E'ff'ofX£voi  toivuv  toi^  aymg  ira- 
cpatfiv,  5va  xai  <rov  olutov  ofz-oXo^sov  uiov  rov  xupiov  -/jjulcjv 
I>l(J'ouv  p^pj^Tov,  o'ufXipwvwc:  k'jfavTeg  fxc^i^aCxoim-sv,  tsXsiqv  rov 
auTov  iv  ^£0T7]T{  xai  tsXsiov  «rov  aurov  iv  dv^pcj'ff'OTr/<ri,  6sov 
dXr)^<vov,  xai  dv^pwTTov  oIXtj^co^  tov  duTov  §x  -^^v/rig  Xoyixrig  xai 
tfwjxaTo^,  ofjLoouCiov  <rcj  'raTpi  xara  tyjv  ^sorrira,  xai  ojuloouCiov 
TOV  duTov  7j/x»v  xaTU  TTjv  dv^pw'ff'oTTjTa,  xa<ra  cravra  of/.ojov 
rjfjLiv,  X^p'?  aiiapTias.  «rpo  diwvwv  fjLSv  sx  <rou  'Tarpon  yswri- 
^Svia  xoLTU  Tr)v  ^£0T7)<ra,  gV  ecf^acwv  (^s  <rwv  '/jjxepwv  tov  du«rov 
5i  -^laa^  xai  ^la  <r>]v  ^jjxsrspav  tfajTi^piav  gx  Mapiac:  r>)g  ^so- 
roxou  xara  ttjv  dv^pw'n'0T7]Ta,  sva  xai  tov  duTov  ^^pitfTOv, 
UIOV,  xupiov,  fjbovo^svr],  £x  Juo  (putfswv  (^v  (^uo  (puCso'iv)  dtfu^- 
X^TUig,  dTpso'Tw^,  d^iaipfcTwg  dp^wpitTTW^  yvwpi^ofjLfvov,  ou(5a- 
fji-ou  Trjj  Twv  (puCswv  Jia(popag  dv^jpi^fjifVigj  ^la  Trjv  svcjffiv, 
tfCAj^o|XSvy]g  (Js  fj.dXXov  T7)j  i^ioTrjTo^  §xaT£paj  (puCsw^  xai  1^ 
sv  flTpotfwn'ov  xai  juiiav  u'ToO'Tatfiv  tfuvrps^outfy)^,  oux  £i^  5uo 
TpoCcAJ-ra  fjispi^ojixovov  7)  ^laipoufJLSvov,  ctXX'  Iva  xai  tov  duTov 
uiov  xai  fjLovo^gvT),  ^cov  Xo^'iv,  xupiov  'It^o'ouv  )(pi^ov  xa^acr^p 
dvw^sv  CI  'TTpoqjT^Tai  •Ji'spi  duTou,  xai  duTo^  >jfJLag  6  xupioc  ^I-yj- 
tfoug  ggsflrai^sutfs  xai  to  twv  «ra7gp&jv  tj/xiv  «7rapa^g(5ojxg  tfu/x^oXov. 

Sec.  84.  Subsequent  Contests, 
The  formula  of  Chalcedon,  did  not  meet  universal  ap- 
probation ;  and  a  numerous  body  of  Monophy sites,  sepa- 
rated themselves  from  the  other  churches.  The  attempt 
of  the  Emperor  Zeno,  to  win  them  back,  by  means  of  his 
Henoticon,  produced  no  lasting  effect.     In  the  entire  La- 


or    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  67 

tin  church,  and  in  a  large  part  of  the  Greek  church,  the 
formula  of  Chalcedon  was  received  ;  and  it  was  annexed 
to  the,  so  called,  Athanasian  Creed.  The  Monophysite 
contests  were  followed,  by  that  of  the  Theopaschites,  and 
that  concerning  the  three  chapters,  (de  tribus  capitulis,) 
which  were  decided  in  the  fifth  general  Council.  There 
was  also,  dissension  among  the  Monophysites,  respecting 
the  incorruptibility  of  Chrisfsbody;  in  which  the  Empe- 
ror Justinian  took  part. 

Reference,  Second  Part  of  the  Athanasian  Creed  :  Sed 
nccessarium  est  ad  aeternam  salutem,  ut  incarnationem 
quoque  domini  noslri  Jesu  Chrisli  fideliter  credat.  Est 
ergo  fides  recta,  ut  credamus  et  confitearnuT,  qnia  do- 
minus  noster  Jesus  Christus,  dei  filius,  deus  pariter  et 
homo  est.  Deus  est  ex  substantia  patris  ante  saecula 
genitus  :  homo  ex  substantia  matris  in  saeculo  natus. 
Perfectus  deus,  perfectus  homo,  ex  aninia  rationah  et 
humana  carne  subsistens,  aequahs  patri  secundum  divi- 
nitatem,  minor  patre  secundum  humanitatem.  Qui  li- 
cet deus  sit  et  homo,  non  duo  tamen  sed  unus  est 
Christus  ;  unus  autem  non  conversione  divinitatis  in 
carnem,  sed  assumtione  humanitatis  in  Deum.  Unus 
omnio  non  confusione  substantiarum  sed  unitate  per- 
sonae.  Nam  sicut  anima  rationalis  et  caro  unus  est 
homo,  ita  et  deus  et  homo  unus  est  christus,  qui  pas- 
Bus  est  pro  salute  nostra,  descendit  ad  inferos,  tertia 
die  resurrexit  a  mortuis,  ascendit  in  coelos,  sedet  ad 
dexteram  patris,  inde  venturus  judicare  vivos  et  mortuos. 
Ad  cuius  adventum  omnes  homines  resurgere  debent  cum 
corporibus  suis,  et  reddituri  sunt  de  factis  propriis  rationem, 
et  qui  bona  egerunt,  ibunt  in  vitam  aeternam,  qui  vero 
mala,  in  ignem  aeternuin.  Haec  est  fides  catholica,  quam 
nisi  quisquam  fideliter  firmiterquc  crediderit,  salvus  esse 
non  poterit. 


08  muenscher's  elements 

CHAPTER  VII. 

DOCTRINE    OF    REDEMPTION   BY   JESUS    CHRIST. 

Sec.  85.  The  general  and  constant  doctrine  of  the 
Church. 
That  men  need  to  be  redeemed,  because  they  are  in- 
volved in  ignorance,  error,  and  sin  ;  that  Jesas  Christ  has 
promulged  God's  plan,  for  the  redemption  of  men;  that 
it  is  through  him,  they  obtain  forgiveness  of  sins,  power 
and  help  to  become  virtuous,  and  the  hope  of  blessedness ; 
and  that  faith  in  Jesus  Christ,  forsaking  sin,  and  practis- 
ing goodness,  are  means  for  the  attainment  of  the  bless- 
ings of  Christianity  ;  all  christians,  unitedly,  and  constantly, 
believed.  But  these  simple  propositions  were  capable  of 
diversified  explanations,  and  they  gave  rise  to  various  ques- 
tions and  investigations ;  so  that  the  teachers  found  abund- 
ant matter,  to  exercise  and  employ  their  powers  of  reflec- 
tion and  discrimination. 

Sec  86.     JVature  of  man. 

To  explain  the  nature  of  redemption,  we  must  keep 
in  view  the  degeneracy  of  mankind  ;  and  not  to  cast  the 
blame  of  this  on  God,  we  must  go  back  to  the  nature  and 
the  original  character  of  mankind.  The  universal  doc- 
trine of  the  church,  was  that  God  created  mankind,  and 
with  ability  to  good ;  and  especially,  that  he  endued  them 
with  freedom.  Yet  it  remained  undetermined,  whether 
man  consists  of  two(l)  parts,  [body  and  soul,]  or  of 
three{2)  [body,  soul,  and  spirit ;]  whether  the  soul  is  to 
be  considered  as  corporeal,  as  Tertullian(S),  and  after 
him  many  others  supposed  ;  and  what  origin  is  to  be  as- 
cribed to  the  soul.  In  regard  to  the  last  point,  the  opin- 
ions of  the  Gnostics[A)  and  Manichaeans[b)  were  reject- 
ed ;  the  early  opinion,  that  the  soul  is  a  part  or  a  breath 
from  God(6),  was  gradually  discarded;  and  Origen^s{l) 
hypothesis,  of  the  pre-existence  of  souls,  sunk  into  dis- 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  (59 

repute,  and  was  at  last  condemned.  On  the  contrary, 
the  two  theories, — of  the  creation,  and  of  the  derivation, 
of  the  soul, — both  prevailed,  without  cither's  gaining  a 
complete  ascendency. 

(1)  So  Tertullian,  and  probably  Lactaniius. 

(2)  So  Clemens  Alex,  and  Or'igen, 

(3)  de  Anirna.  c.  61. 

(4)  They  held  the  spirit  of  man  to  be  a  ray,  or  sjparh  of 
light,  from  the  Pleroma ;  but  the  sensitive  soul,  to  be  the 
creation  of  the  Demiurge. 

(6)  They  held  the  rational  soul,  to  be  a  particle  from  the 
world  of  light,  stolen  by  the  Prince  of  darkness;  but  the 
sensitive  soul,  to  be  the  creation  of  the  devil. 

(6)  So  thought  Justin  M.  (Dial.  p.  106.)  Tatian,  (Orat.p. 
253  &c.)  and  Tertullian,  (de  Anim.  c.  3,  11.) 

(7)  da  Piincip.  passim. 

Sec.  87.     Endowments  of  men. 

The  fathers  speak  most  frequently,  of  two  endowments 
of  rtien ;  namely,  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  the 
image  of  God.  Some  of  the  earlier  fathers,  as  Jus- 
tin(i),  Tatian(2),  Theophilus(S),  and  after  them,  Ar- 
nobius(4)  and  Lactantim(5),  believed  the  soul  to  be, 
naturally,  mortal ;  but  that  God  rewards  it  with  immor- 
tality. Tertullian(6),  on  the  contrary,  and  Origen,  who 
were  followed  by  the  subsequent  fathers,  supposed  the 
soul  to  be  immortal,  in  its  nature  ;  and  they  supported 
this  opinion  by  various  arguments(7).  The  image  of 
God  in  men,  some  of  the  earlier  fathers  indeed  referred 
to  the  body{8) ;  but  the  Alexandrians(9)  took  pains,  to 
suppress  an  opinion  so  gross.  They (10)  discriminated 
between  the  image  of  God,  and  likeness  to  him ;  under- 
standing by  the  former,  rational  endowments ;  and  by  the 
latter,  virtuous  sensibilities.  Most  of  the  succeeding  fa- 
thers(ll)  coincided  with  them;  yet  some  of  them  ex- 
plained the  image  of  God,  to  denote  dominion  over  the 
creatures.  The  Mosaic  account  of  the  state  and  the 
apostacy  of  the  first  human  pair,  was  generally  understood 

7* 


TO  muencher's   elements 

to  be  proper  history;  but  Origen(l2),  viewing  the 
literal  sense  of  it,  to  be  absurd,  interpreted  it  allegor- 
ically. 

(1)  Dial.  p.  107  &c, 

(2)  Orat.  p.  249,  254. 

(3)  ad  Autol.  Lib.  II.  p,  368. 

(4)  adv.  Gentes  Lib.  II.  p. 52  &c. 

(5)  Instit.  div.  VIL  c.  5,  9,  10,  11  &c. 

(6)  de  Aninia  c.  51. — Also  Irenaeus  adv.  Ilaer.  V.  c.  4,  7. 
and  II.  c.  34. 

(7)  Origen  argued  from  the  nature  of  the  soul,  it  being  a 
spirit,  like  God  and  the  angels,  (de  Princip.  IV.  §  36  :) 
also  from  the  longing  of  the  soul  after  immortality.  Exhort, 
ad  Martyros. 

(8)  Justin  M,  Fragm.  de  Resurrect.  Irenaeus  adv.  Haerea. 
V.  c.  6.  Clementina^  Homil.  III.  c.  8.  Lactant^  Instit. 
div.H.  c.lO. 

(9)  Clemens,  Strom.  Lib.  II.  p.  483.  Origen^  contra  Cels. 
in  Opp.  T.  I.  p.  680.  and  T.  II.  p.  57. 

(10)  Clemens,  Strom.  Lib.  II.  p.  499.  Origen,  Opp.  T.  I. 
p.522. 

(11)  Irenaeus,  adv.  Haeres.  IV.  c.  4,38.  and  V.  c.  16.7Vr- 
tullian,  contra  Marciori.  Lib.  II.  c.  5,  de  Baptismo,  c.  5. 

(12)  adv.  Cels.  Lib.  IV.  Opp.  T.I.  p.  530  &c.  de.  Princip. 
Lib.  IV.  p.  175. 

Sec.  88.     Origin  and  propagation  of  sin,  according  to 
the  Greek  fathers. 

Historians:  J.  G.  Walcli,  Historia  doctrinae  de  Peccato 
originis  ; — m  his  Miscell.  sacra.  A.  D.  1744.  4to. 

Jo,  Horn,  Commentatio  de  sententiis  eorum  patrum,  quorum 
auctoritas  ante  Augustinum  phirimum  valuit,  de  peccato 
originali.     Getting.  1801.  4to. 

According  to  the  Gnostics,  and  the  Manichaeans,  the 
sinfulness  of  mankind,  arose  from  their  souls  being  con- 
nected with  material  bodies.  The  Greek  fathers(l)  be- 
lieved that,  in  consequence  of  Adam's  sin,  not  only  he, 
but  his  posterity  also,  became  mortal.  But  all  sin,  they 
traced  to  the  free  choice  of  men :  yet  they  allowed,  that 


J 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  71 

the  temptations  of  evil  spirits,  and  their  own  sensual  incli- 
nations, contributed  thereto.  Although  they  admitted,  that 
since  Adam's  transgression,  men  were  more  easily  led  in-- 
to  sin ;  yet  they  ascribed  to  mankind,  a  power  to  resist 
all  incitements  to  evil.  Methodius(2),  in  particular,  as- 
sumed that,  by  Adam's  apostacy,  the  souls  of  mankind 
became  full  of  wicked  propensities ;  yet  that  it  depended 
on  their  own  wills,  whether  they  would  gratify  those  pro- 
pensities or  not.  The  same  ideas  continued  to  be  the 
prevailing  ones,  among  the  Greek  fathers;  and  they  were 
developed  by  no  one,  more  clearly,  than  by  JohnChrysos^ 
torn.  The  Alexandrians,  Clement  and  Origen,  never 
once  traced  the  mortality  of  mankind,  back  to  Adam's 
sin  ;  but  attributed  it  to  the  nature  of  the  body.  They  re- 
jected, in  the  most  express  terms,  all  propagation  of  sin 
and  guilt ;  although  Origen  believed  in  an  existing  sinful- 
ness of  men,  as  they  came  into  the  world.  With  them, 
substantially,  Gregory  of  Naz.  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa, 
appear  to  have  agreed. 

(1)  Justin  Martyr,  Dial.  p.  \7^,  206,  231.  Apol.  major,  § 

10.  p.  49.  §  61.  p.  80.   Apol.  minor,  p.  93. 
Athenagoras,  Legat.  pro  Christiariis.  p.  202 — 205. 
Tatiimy  Orat.  p.  146,  160,  152,  153,249,  255,  261. 
Theophilus  Antioclu  ad  Autol,  Lib.  II.  p.  368. 
Clemens   Alex.   Strom.   Lib.  I.  p.368.II.  p.  461,  463.  III. 

p.  556,  557.  IV.  p.  633.  VII.  p.  894. 
Origen,   de  Princip.    Prooem.   p.  48.    Lib.  III.   c.    t.    2. 

and  0pp.  T.  I.  p.  260.  T.  11.  p.  4.  T.  III.  p.  947,  948, 
Athanasius,  0pp.  T.  L  p.  150,638.     (ed.  Montf.  T.  L 

p.  104.  T.  I.  P.  II.  p.  944.) 
Chrysostom,   in  Psal.  L.  Hoin.  II.    Opp.    T.  III.  p.  874, 

875.  in  Ep,  ad  Rom.  Horn.  X.  Tom.  X.  p.  125.  Horn, 

XI.  p.  137.  Horn.  XIL  p.  153.  Horn.  XIIL  p.  365. 
Cyril  of  Jerus,  Catech.  11.  §  1—3.  p.  22.  Catecb.  IV.  c.l9- 

p.  61. 
Titus  of   Bostra,     contra    Manichaeos,    Lib,  II.  in  Bas- 

nage,  Monumenta,  Tom.  I.  p.  97- 
Basil  the  Great,   Houiil.     Quod    Deus  nan  sit    auctor 

peccatiy^,  74,76. 


72  muenscher's  elements 

Gregory,  Naz.de  Orat.Dom.Orat.V.Opp.T.  I.  p. 755,756. 
Gregory,  Nyss.  Opp.  T.  I.  p.  149—151.  T.  III.  p.  329. 
Nemesius,  de  Natura  Hominis,  c.  29 — 40. 
Epiphanius,  Haeres.  XVI.  §  4. 

(2)  in  Photius,  Biblioth.  Cod.  234.  p.  915,  Cod.  236. 
p.  949. 

Sec.  89.  Latin  Jathers,  before  Augustine, 
TertuUian{l),  who  believed  in  the  propagation  of 
souls,  conceived  the  idea,  that  not  only  mortality,  but 
likewise  sinfulness,  was  propagated  from  Adam  to  his  pos- 
terity. But  though  he  maintained  the  propagated  vitiosi- 
ty  of  man,  yet  he  was  far  from  accounting  mankind,  in- 
capable of  good  actions.  He  was  followed  by  Cyj7- 
nan(2)  Hilary  (3)  of  Poictiers,  and  Ambrose[4) ;  and 
even  Augustine[5)  in  his  earlier  writings,  was  of  the 
same  opinion.  Arnobius[6)  and  Lactantius{l)  dissent- 
ed ;  but  their  views  were  not  received,  by  the  catholic 
churches. 

(1)  de  Anima,  c.  16,40.  contra  Marcion,  Lib.  II.  c.  6,  1. 

(2)  Ep.  LXIV.  ad  Fidnm.  p.  161.  de  Opere  et  Eleem.  p. 
196.  de  Gratia,  ad  Donat.  p.  2.  de  Idolor.  vanita- 
te,  p.   13. 

(3)  in  Ps.  cxviii.  Lit.  22.  Sec.  4.  p,  366. 
l\)  in  Ps.  cxviii.  c.  7. 

(5)  de  Lib.  Arbitr.  I.  c.  13.  II.  c.  1.  contra  Faustum 
Manich.  XXII.  c.  78.  de  vera  Relig.  c.  14.  (Opp.  T. 
I.  p.  756.)     But  otherwise,  in  his  Retract.  Lib.  I.  c.  14. 

(6)  adv.  Gentes  Lib.  I.  p.  15.  (He  believed  the  soul  to  be, 
not  from  God,  but  the  workmanship  of  some  inferior 
power  or  spirit ;  and  therefore  defective.) 

(7)  Instit.  divin.  IL  c.  12.  VL  c.  13.  VII.  c.  5.  de  Ira 
Dei,  c.  15.  (He  supposed  tlie  body,  to  contaminate 
the  soul.) 

Sec.  90.     Early  doctrine  of  divine  aid  to  goodness. 
Historians,     Gerk,  Jo,  Vossins,  Historiae  de  controver- 

siis  quas  Pelaiifius  et  ejus  reliquiae  moverunt,  Lib.  VII. 

ed.  2,  Amstei.  1655.  and  in  his  Opp,  Tom.  VI. 
Veritable  tradition  de  V  Eglise  sur  la  Predestination   et  la 

Grace  ;  in  Jo.  Launoii  Opp.  T.  L  P.  II.  p.  1065. 


i 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  73 

Christ.  Mattk.    Pfoff^  Specimen  historiae  doofmaticae  de 

Giatia  et  PraeJestinatione,  in   his  Primitia  Tubingens. 

Tub.   1718.    4to. 
Jo,  Ja,  Hottinger,   Fata  doctrinae  de  praedestinatione  et 

Gratia  Dei  salutari.     Tiguri  1747.  4to. 
Jo.  Geo.  Vialch,  Diss,  de  Peiagianismo  ante  Pelagium  ;  in 

his  Miscell.  sacra.  1744. 
Theological  history  of  the  doctrine  and   opinions  of  the 

church,  in  the  five  first  centuries,  respecting  divine  Grace, 

free  Will,  and  Predestination  ;  (in  Italian,)  Trent.  1742. 

Fol.   (by  Scipio  Maffei).  Also  in  Latin,  by  Fr,  Reifen- 

berg,  Francf.   1 756.  Fol. 

Jesus  and  his  apostles,  represent  faith  and  reformation, 
sometimes  as  the  work  of  man,  and  sometimes  as  being 
the  gift  of  God.  Hence  efforts  were  made,  to  reconcile 
these  opposite  representations.  The  Greek  church(l) 
took  the  ground  of  the  perfect  freedom  of  man's  will ; 
and  therefore  taught,  that  it  depends  on  the  purpose  and 
exertions  of  man,  to  attain  to  faith  and  virtue ;  yet  that 
die  grace  of  God,  comes  in  aid  of  man's  exertions,  by  im- 
parting to  him  strength,  assistance,  and  excitements.  Of 
course,  man  must  render  himself  a  fit  subject  of  divine 
grace  ;  which  he  has  power  to  use  properly,  and  also  to 
abuse.  These  ideas,  which  were  fully  stated  by  Cfe* 
ment{2)  and  Origen{^),  were  also  advanced  by  the  fa* 
thers  of  the  fourth  century;  by  Cyril{^)  of  Jerusalem, 
Gregory[b)  of  Nazianzum,  Oregory{6)  of  Nyssa,  and 
clearest  of  all,  by  Chrysostom{l),  The  Latin  fathers(8) 
did  not  deviate  essentially.  For,  ahhough  they  painted, 
in  glowing  colors,  the  excellence  of  divine  grace,  yet 
they  left  room,  for  the  spontaneous  activity  of  man  to  have 
a  part  in  his  reformation.  An  irresistable  work  of  grace, 
and  an  unconditional  election,  were  not  thought  of;  and 
the  divine  purposes  were  always  traced  back  to  God's 
foreknowledge. 

(l)  See  Justin   Martyr,  Apol.  maj.   Sec.    10.   p.   48.    and 
p,  61, 


74 


(3) 
(4) 


(2)  Strom.  Lib.  If.  p.  434,  462.  IV.  p.  633,  443.  V.  p. 
645,  647.  VI.   p.   788.  832.  VII.   p.  860. 
'   de  Pfinclp.  L.  III.  c.  1,  2.  also  0pp.  T.  I.  p.  108  &c. 
Procateches.  c.    1.     Catech.  I.  Sec.    3.  XIII.    Sec. 
1—4.  XIV.  Sec.    19,  22. 

(5)  Orat>  XXXI,  p.  504,  505. 

(6)  Oral.  I.   Opp.  T.  I.  p.  150. 

(7)  in  Genes.  Homil.  22,  23,  in  Ep.  ad  Rom.  Homil.  16. 
in  Ep.  ad  Hebr.  Homil.  12.  (Opp.  T,  XII.  p.  805—07.) 
inPs.  L.  Homil.  2.    de  Ferendis  reprehens.  Homil.  13. 

(8)  Irenaeus,  adv.  Haeres.  II.  c.  37 — 39.  Tertullian, 
de  Anima,  c.  21.  adv.  Marcion  II.  c.  5 — 8.  Minutius 
FeliXi  Octav.  c.  36.  Ci/prian,  de  Gratia  Dei,  ad  Donat. 
p.  3,  4.  Testim.  adv.  Judaeos,  L.  III.  c.52.     Arnobiusj 

.adv.  Gentes.  L.  H.  p.  88,  89.  Laciantius,  Instit.  divia. 
IV.  c.  16.  VI.  c.  24.  VII.  c.  5.  Hilary  of  Poict.  in  Psal. 
cxviii.  Lit.  V.§  14.  Lit.  VI.  §  4.  Lit.  XVII.  §  8.  Optatus 
Milecvt,  de  Schismate  Donatist.  II.  c.  20.  Ambrose,  in 
Evang.  Luc.  L.  II.  c.  14.  de  Fuga  Saeculi,  c  1.  de  Fide, 
ad  Grat.  L.  V.  c.  2. 

Sec  91.      Conflict  of  Augustine  with  Pelagius, 

Historians  of  it.     Cornelius  Jansenius,  Augustinus.  Lout. 

1640.  Fol. 
Dionys,   Petavius,  de  Pelagianorum  et  Semipelagianorum 

dogmatum  Historia  ;  in  his  work,  de  Dogmatibus  theo- 

log.  T.  III.  p.  304—335.     de  Prgedestinatione  et  Re- 

probatione  L.  II.  ibid.  T.  I.  p.  343,  475. 
Henry  Noris,  Historia  Pelagianaj   in   his   Opp.   Veron. 

1729.  Tom.  I. 
Ch,  Fr.    W.   Walch,  History  of  Heresies  ;  (in  German,) 

vols.  IV.  and  V. 

Augustine,  the  renowned  Bishop  of  Hippo,  by  his  aims 
to  glorify  the  grace  of  God,  and  by  some  passages  of 
scripture,  was  led  to  a  mode  of  thinking,  which  deviated 
from  the  earlier  system  of  belief,  and  which  attributed 
all  goodness  in  men,  exclusively,  to  divine  operation.  On 
this  subject,  he  fell  into  a  contest  with  Pelagius  and 
Coelestine,  And  through  the  influence  of  his  reputation, 
and  the  cooperation  of  the  African  churches,  and  of  the 


or    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  75 

Bishop  of  Rome,  the  Pelagians  were  condemned,  as  here- 
tics ;  notwithstanding  the  Council  of  Diospolis  was  favor- 
able to  them.  This  controversy  related  to  the  subjects 
of  sin,  grace  and  free  will,  and  election  ;  with  which  were 
connected,  those  of  infant  baptism,  redemption,  and  per- 
severance in  holiness. 

Notices.  The  earlier  writings  of  Augustine  were:  de  Li- 
bero  Arbitrio,  Lib.  III.  A.  D.  388.  de  Diversis  Ques- 
tionibus  LXXXlil.  A.  D.  348—395.  de  Diversis  Qiies- 
tionibus  ad  Simpliciarium,  A.  D.  397-  His  later  wri- 
tings  were  :  de  Peccatorum  meritis  et  remissione,  Lib. 
I[L  A.  D.  412.  de  Natura  et  gratia,  contra  Pelagium, 
A.  D.  415.  de  Gestis  Pelagii,  A.  D.  416.  de  Gratia 
Christi,  et  de  peccato  originali,  Lib.  IL  A.  D.  418.  de 
Nuptiis  et  concupiscentia,Lib.  I,  IL  A.D.  419,  420.  con- 
tra IL  Epistolas  Pelagianorum,  ad  Bonafacium,  Lib.  IV. 
and  contra  Julianum.  Lib.  VI.  A.  D.  421.  de  Correp- 
tione  et  gratia  ;  de  Gratia  et  libero  Arbitrio,  A.  D.  427. 
de  Praedestinatione  sanctorum  ;  de  Dono  perseveran- 
tiae,  A.  D.  428,  or  429.  Operis  imperfecti  conira  Jylia- 
niuii,  Lib.  VL  A.  D.  430. 

From  Pelagins,  we  have,  besides  a  commentary  on  the 
Epistles  of  Paul,  an  Epistle  to  Demetrias,  (edited  by  J. 
S.  Semler,  Halle,  1775.)  and  a  confession  of  faith.  From 
Coelestius,  also  a  confession  of  faith.  And  from  Julian^ 
many  fragments,  cited  by  Augustine. 

Sec.  92.  The  first  point,  sin. 
The  Pelagians  believed,  that  Adam's  sin  had  no  bad  ef- 
fects, upon  the  character  and  condition  of  his  posterity ; 
that  sin  arose,  merely,  from  imitation ;  that  all  men  are, 
from  their  nature,  mortal ;  and  are  born,  undepraved. 
According  to  Augustine's  doctrine,  all  men,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  descent  from  Adam,  are  mortal ;  are 
chargeable  with  hereditary  sin ;  and  are  obnoxious  to 
damnation.  These  doctrines  he  endeavored  to  prove, 
from  infant  baptism,  from  the  practice  of  exorcisms,  and 
from  Rom,  v.  12.  Against  him  it  was  objected,  that  hig 
doctrine  of  hereditary  sin  and  its  propagation,  was  ab- 


7G 

surd ;  that  it  would  lead  to  the  disapproval  of  matrimo- 
ny ;  and  that,  affirming  the  corruption  of  human  nature, 
and  a  connate  worthiness  of  punishment,  was  making 
God  the  author  of  evil,  and  an  unrighteous  judge. 

Sec.  93.  Second  point,  grace  and  free  will. 
Desirous  of  explaining,  precisely,  the  activity  of 
man,  and  the  influences  of  God,  Pelagius  discriminated 
between  the  power,  the  will,  and  the  act ;  and  he  at- 
tributed the  first  to  God,  the  second  to  man,  and  the 
lliird  to  both  united.  [When  a  man  wills  to  do  good, 
God  gives  him  the  power,  and  so  both  have  a  part  in 
the  act^  By  the  ambiguous  term  grace,  he  understood, 
sometimes,  divine  instructions,  and  sometimes,  other 
means  of  moral  improvement ;  but  never,  any  divine  ener- 
gy that  impaired  the  free  operations  of  the  will.  Au- 
gustine, on  the  contrary,  subverted,  substantially  at  least, 
the  freedom  of  the  will ;  and  derived  all  that  was  good 
in  man,  solely  from  divine  grace;  by  which  he  under- 
stood an  internal  operation  upon  the  soul,  whereby  it  re- 
ceived, not  only  the  power,  but  also  the  will,  to  do  good. 
This  grace,  he  maintained  to  be  indispensable  to  man, 
at  all  times,  and  for  all  duties  :  without  it,  no  man  can 
do  a  good  act;  and  even  with  it,  no  man  is  entirely  free 
from  sin.  All  this  he  inferred  either  from  his  idea  of  he- 
reditary sin,  or  from  such  passages  of  Scripture  as  John 
viii.  31,  32.  Phil.  ii.  J  3.  2  Cor.  iii.  6,  6.  But  he  ex- 
posed himself  to  the  objection,  that,  like  the  Manichaeans, 
he  annihilated  the  freedom  of  the  will,  and  must  look 
upon  all  precepts  and  exhortations  to  virtue  as  nugatory. 

Sec.  94.  Third  point,  election. 
From  his  conviction,  that  all  men  are  totally  depraved-, 
and  incapable  of  good  deeds,  there  was  no  way  lelt,  lor 
Augustine  to  answer  the  question,  Why  are  some  con- 
verted and  saved,  and  others  not, — but  to  ascribe  it  to 
the  sovereign  will  of  God.  And  thus  was  formed,  his 
doctrine  of  unconditional  predestination;  according  lo 
which,  God  destined  some  men  to  blessedness,  without 


OF    DOGMATIC    KISTORT.  7T 

regard  to  their  merits  and  conduct,  from  his  mere  good 
pleasure  ;  while  he  leaves  others  in  their  sins,  and  sen- 
tences them  to  punishment,  in  order  to  exhihit  his  justice. 
These  doctrines  not  only  forced  themselves  upon  him,  as 
consequences  of  the  other  parts  of  his  system;  but. he 
believed,  they  could  be  established  by  the  scripture,  Rom. 
ix :  and  he  took  great  pains  to  soften  down  their  harsh 
features,  and  to  meet  the  objections  to  their  injurious 
practical  tendency.  From  them  flowed,  spontaneously, 
the  ideas  of  irresistible  divine  influences,  of  special  grace, 
and  particular  redemption,  and  of  the  infallible  perse- 
verance of  the  elect. 

Sec.  95.     Progress  of  the  doctrine^  after  Augustine. 

Great  as  the  influence  of  Augustine  was,  his  principles 
gained  no  currency,  among  the  Eastern  christians ;  and 
even  in  the  West,  opposition  was  raised;  especially  by  the 
Galilean  divines,  who  believed  that,  men  still  have  some 
ability  to  do  good,  by  means  of  which,  though  they  can- 
not merit  divine  grace,  ye^  they  can  prepare  themselves 
to  receive  it;  and  that  God's  purpose  to  save,  depends  on 
the  foreseen  use  made  of  this  power.  John  Cassianus 
was  the  most  noted  divine  of  this  party  ;  and  Famtus, 
Bishop  of  RieZjbrought  Lucidus  an  Augustinian,  to  change 
his  sentiments,  A.  D.  475.  The  controversv  between  the 
Massilians,  (Semi-Pelagians,)  and  those  called  Predes- 
tinarians,  continued  for  some  time;  but  in  the  year  529, 
the  opinions  of  the  former  were  condenmed,  in  the  Coun- 
cils of  Arausio  (Orange)  and  Valentia  (Valence ;)  and 
tlie  decision  was  confirmed  by  the  Romish  Bishops. 

References.    Jo.  Ca^^tcrnw*,  CollationespatrumSceticorum, 

Collat*.  XIII.  0pp.  |>.  691—627. 
Prosper  of  Aquitain,  de  Gratia  et  Arhitrio  Liber,  contra 

Collatorem ;  in  0pp.  Cassian,  p.  887. 
Faustus,  Ep.  ad  Lucidum  :  and,  de  Gratia  et  libero  Arbi- 

trio  Lib.  II.— in  Biblioth  Pair. 

Praedestinatus ;  in  0pp.  J.  Sirmondi,  Tom.  L 

8 


78  muenscher's  elements 

Sec.  96.      What  Christ  has  done  for  mankind. 
Historians.     J.  Fr.  Cotta,  Dissertatio,  historiam  doctrinae 

de  Redemptioneecclesiae  sanguine  J.  C.  facta   exhibens; 

in  Jo.Gerhardi  Locas  theolog.  ed.  Cofta,  Tom.  IV.  p.  105. 
Wern.  Car.  Lud.  Ziegler^  Historia doomatis  de  Redemp- 

tione,  seude  modis,  quihus  redernptio  Christi  cxplicaba- 

tur;  Getting.  1791. — also  in  Velfhuscn,KiiindletRupcrti^ 

Commentat't.  Theolog.  vol.  V.  p.  227  &c. 

The  doctrines  concerning  sin  and  grace,  stand  closely 
connected  with  those  concerning  Christ;  for  it  is  through 
him,  that  sins  are  blotted  out,  and  the  grace  of  God  im- 
parted. Jesus  Christ  was  described,  as  being,  in  va- 
rious respects,  the  greatest  benefactor  of  mankind; 
and  for  proof,  mention  was  made  of  his  excellent  in- 
structions, his  noble  example,  the  communication  of 
powers  for  holiness,  his  overthrowing  the  dominion 
of  evil  spirits,  and  procuring  immortality.  At  the 
same  time,  as  Irenaeus(l),  and  even  Gregory  of  Na- 
zianzum,  assert,  the  theologians  were  left  free,  to  form 
their  own  conceptions  of  the  design  and  effects  of  the  in- 
carnation and  sufferings  of  Christ :  and  it  is  not  strange, 
therefore,  that  we  should  find  them  to  have  entertained 
different  views. 

(1)  adv.  Haeres.  I.  c.  10. 

Sec.  97.  Effects  of  Chrisfs  death. 
Both  Irenaeus(\)  and  Origen(2)  had,  in  their  day, 
represented  the  death  of  Christ,  sometimes,  as  a  ransom 
given  to  the  devil,  and  sometimes,  as  a  debt  paid  to  God. 
In  accordance  with  the  first  of  these  hypotheses,  most  of 
the  fathers  spoke  of  the  death  of  Christ,  as  being  the 
means  of  the  rescue  of  mankind  from  the  dominion  of  the 
devil,  under  which  sin  had  brought  them  :  and  they  some- 
times go  upon  the  assumption,  that  on  the  principle  of 
distributive  justice,  the  power  of  the  devil  was  taken  from 
him,  because  he  misused  it  upon  Jesus  Christ(3) ;  at  other 
times,  they  represent  redemption  as  being,  either  a  com- 
bat (4),  or  a  bargain(^),  with  the  devil.     Gregory  of 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  7^ 

Nazianzum,  however,  rejects  the  idea,  that  Jesus  Christ 
paid  a  ransom  to  the  devil(6).  Others  of  the  fathers, — 
as  Athanasius(l )  and  Cyril(S), — go  upon  the  principle 
of  a  debt  paid  to  God ;  and  they  consider  the  death  of 
Christ,  as  the  stipulated  condition,  on  which  God  can, 
without  injury  to  his  veracity,  release  men  from  the  death 
threatened  to  them.  Soaie  of  them  also  assert,  that  Je- 
sus Christ  paid  more,  than  was  necessary  for  the  redemp- 
tion of  the  human  race(9).  Lastly,  there  were  some,  who 
supposed,  that  the  whole  mass  of  human  nature,  was  ele- 
vated and  ennobled,  by  the  Son  of  God's  participating  in 
it(lO).  It  remained  undetermined,  whether  the  death 
of  Christ  was  indispensable,  in  order  to  the  salvation  of 
men(ll).  Respecting  the  extent  of  redemption,  Ori- 
gen(  12)  advanced  the  idea,  that  Christ  died,  not  merely 
for  men,  but  for  all  intelligent  creatures :  but  this  idea 
was,  by  all  the  other  fathers,  except  perhaps  Grego- 
ry(i3)  of  Nyssa  and  Didymus(  14),  either  silently  re- 
jected, or  expressly  disapproved. 

(1)  adv.  Haeres.  Lib.  V.  c.  1,  16,  21. 

(2)  Comment,  in  Mntth.  Opp.  T.  III.  p.  726,  and  p.  321, 
and  T.  IV.  p.  495.  Homil.  VI.  in  Exod.  Lib.  II.  contra. 
Gels.  Lib.  I.  §  31. 

(3)  Augustine^  de.  Lib.  Arbitrio.  Lib.  III.  c.  10.  (Opp. 
T.  I.  p.  622  &c.)  also  de  Trinit.  Lib.  XIII.  c.  10—15. 
Chrysostom,  Homil.  LXVI.  (T.  Vlll.  p.  432,  433.) 
Homil.  XXIV.  in  1  Ep.  ad  Cor.  (T.  XI.  p.  262,)— Hi- 
lary of  Poict.  Tract,  in  Ps.  Ixviii.  §  8.  p.  218. — Leoihe 
Gr.  Serm.  LIX.  c.4.  (Tom.  I.  p.  132,  e(l.  Quesn.)  Serm. 
LXVH.  C.3.  i^M5.— Gregory  the  Gr.  Moral.  Lib.XVH. 

(4)  Irejiaeus,  adv.  Haer.  V.  c.  21,  §  3. — Origen,  contra 
Cels.  Lib.  I.  §  31. —  Theodoret,  de  Provident.  Oral.  X. 
(Opp.  T.  IV.  p.  660.) — Hilary  Pictav.  Comment,  in 
Matth.  c.  3.  §  1,  5.  p.  6  18,  620.— L^o  the  Gr.  Orat.XXlI. 
(Opp.  I.  p.  12.)— Gregory  the  (ir.  Moral.  Lib.  XXVL 
c.  18. 

(5)  Irenaeus,  adv.  Haeres.  V.  c.  1. — Origen,  Comment,  in 
Matth.  (Opp.  T.  III.  p.  126.)— BaHl  the  Gr.  Homil.   ia 


80  muenschek's  elements 

Ps.  xlviii.  (0pp.   T.   p.  179  &c.) — Jerome  in  Ep.   ad. 
Ephes.  cap.  I.  (0pp.  JX.  p.  "iQ^.)-^ Ambrose  Epp.  Lib. 
IX.  Ep.  77. — Rufinus^  Exf)os.  Syrnb.  Apostol.  (sub  Opp.    ^ 
Cypr.  p.21,  22.  ed.  Brem.)     That  the  devil  was  over-   ■ 
reached,  say  :   Cyril  of   Jems.  Catechct.  XII.  p.  170.  ^ 
and  Gregory  Nyss.  Orat.  catechet.  c.  22 — 26. 

(6)  Gregory  Nazianz.  Orat.  XLII.  (Opp.  T.  I.  p.  691,692.) 
and  the  author  of  the  Dialogue,  de  Recta  fide,  sec.  1.  in- 
ter Opp.  Orlgenisy  T.  I.  p.  820. 

(7)  de  Incarnat.  (Opp.  T.  I.  p.  60-62,  or  p.  52  &,c.  ed, 
Montf.)  Orat.  Ill  (II.)  in  Arianos,  (T.  I.  p.  439,  440, or 
p.  535  &c.  ed.  Montf.) 

(8)  Catech.  XIII.  §33. 

(9)  C/yWZof  Jerus.  Catech.  XIII.  §  33. 

(10)  Gregory  NWss.  Orat.  Catech.  c.  16,32,37.  and  Opp. 
Tom.  11.  p.  17,*  588.  Tom.  III.  p.  72,73,92,  102.—//*- 
lary  Pictav.  do  Trinitit.  Lib.  IL  §  24,  25.  and  in  Ps.  li. 
§   15. 

(11)  Affirmed  by :  Basil  the  Gr.  Ilomil.  in  Ps.  xlviii.  (Opp. 
L  179,  180.) — Cyril  Alex.  Dial,  de  incarnatione  uni- 
geniti,  (Opp.  V.  p.  684.) — Leo  the  Gr.  Serm.  L.  c.  1, 2. 
Denied  by  :  Athanasivs,  Oiat.  III.  (11.)  in  Arian.  (Opp. 
L  p.  438,  ^^^.)— Gregory  Naz.  Orat.  IX.  p.  157.— 
Gregory  Nyss.  Orat.  catechet,  c.  17. — Theodorety  de 
graecar.  affectt.  Curatione,  Lib.  VI.  (Opp.  IV.  p.  875, 
876.)— CyWZ  Alex,  contra  Jul.  Lib.  VIII.  p.  284,  285. 
Augustine,,  de  Agone  Christi.  c.  11.  and  de  Trinit.  Lib. 
XIIL  c.  10. 

(12)  Comment,  in  Job.  (Opp.  T.  IV.  p.  41,  42.)  contra 
Cels.  Lib.  II.  p.  409.  Lib.  VII.  p.  706. 

ns)  Orat.  Catechet.  c.  26. 

(14)  Enarrat.  in  I.Ep.  Pelri;in  G allandi  BMioih.  Patr.VI. 
p.  293. — That  Christ  suffered  in  our  steady  was  taught  by  .- 
Euseblus,  Demor)strat.  Evang.  Lib.  X.  p.  467,  and  Lib. 
Lp.  3Q.-— Gregory  Nizmz.  Orat.  XXXVI.  p.  580,  and 
Cyril  Alexand.  de  recta  fide  ad  Reginas,  Opp.  Tom. 
V.  p.  131. 

Sec.  98.     Forgiveness  of  sin. 

It  was  universally  admitted,  that  men  obtain  forgive- 
ness of  sin,  through  Jesus  Christ.      But  a   distinction 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  8J 

was  carefully  made,  between  sins  before  baptism,  and 
sins  committed  afterwards.  The  former,  it  was  believed, 
were  wholly  removed,  by  Christ,  in  baptism.  But  for 
subsequent  sins,  the  man  himself  must  make  satisfac- 
tion(l).  This  satisfaction  consisted  in  Penance^  or  vol- 
untary self-inflictions;  (which  were  considered  as  punish- 
ments, that  the  person  laid  upon  himself,  in  order  to  es- 
cape  divine  punishment;)  and   in  good  works^  among 

which,  fasting,  prayer,  and  alms-giving,  were  especially  ^ ^ 

recommended.    Also  the  intercessions  o(  Wmg  christi^nn^'  '-  ^  ^ 
and   of  glorified   saints,    were   supposed   to  contribute 
very  efficiently,  to  the  forgiveness  of  these  sins.     Whe-       >>, 
ther,    after  one  penance,    a  second  penance  could   be^^      ^ 
admitted,  and  whether  it  was  possible,   to  do  petiance     >, 
in  the  last  moments  of  life,  there  was  not  entire  agree- 
ment ;  but  the  majority  answered  affirmatively.     Faith,'  r,>  ^  .. 
was  considered,  as  the   general  requisite,  to  a  partici-"-     '  "^ 
pation  of  the  blessings  of  Christianity.    '  By  faith,  was 
understood,  embracing  the  christian  religion,  or  rather, 
orthodoxy.      But  the  necessity  of  uniting  good  works 
with  faith,  was  strongly  urged  ;  and  the  nature  of  good 
works, — which  must  originate  from  faith,  and  derive  all 
their  value  froni  it, — was  the  most   precisely  explained 
by  Augustine.      At   the    same   time,   the    opinion  was 
more  and  more  distinctly  held,  that  a  man  could  per- 
form more,  than  he  was  properly  required  to  do,  (works 
of  superogation,)  and  thereby  attain  to  higher  perfec- 
tion and  recompense(2).     The  word  justification,  (jus- 
tificatio,)  was  oftener  used  for  sanctification(3),  than  for 
the  pardon  of  sin. 

Reference.     Ilistoria  antiquior  dogmatis  de  modo  salutis 

tenendae,  et  justificationis  seu  veniae  peccatorum  a  Deo 

impetrandae  instrumentis  ; — auctore  Henr\  Lconh,  Heu- 

.    hner.     Part  I.  and  II.  Wittemb.  1805.  4to, 

(1)   Clemens  Alex.  Strom.  Lib.  IV.  p.  t)34.    Origen,  in  Ep, 

ad  Rom.    Lib.  III.  p.  516,  617.     Cyprian,  de  opere  et 

eleem.  p.  197.     Cyril    Jerus.   Catech.  XVIII.  sec.  20. 

,      Chrysostoniy  in  Evan.  Joan.  Homil  LXXII.  (Tom.  VIIL 

8* 


89  muenscher's  elements 

p.  466.)     Augustine,  Enchirid.  ad  Laurent,  c.  70,  71.  de 

Fide  et  opp.  c.  19. 
^2)  Hermasy  Similit.  V.  c.  2,  3. 
(3)  Augustine,  Ep.  CXL.sec.  63. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

CHRISTIAN    SACRAMENTS. 

Sec.  99.     Baptism, 

Historian,  History  of  Baptism  and  the  Anabapti.sts,  (in 
German,)  by  J.  A.  .SVar^p,  Lips.  1785.  8vo. 

The  earliest  description  of  baptism  among  Christians, 
is  given  by  Justin  Martyr[\),  The  fathers,  very  early, 
ascribed  to  this  act  a  peculiar  efficacy,  in  the  forgiveness 
of  sins,  and  in  the  sanctification  of  the  soul :  and  there  was 
a  continued  advance  in  the  degree  of  efficacy  ascribed  to 
it.  Ordinarily,  baptism  was  administered  by  immersion(2), 
and  only  to  the  sick,  by  sprinkling  ;  and  it  was  regarded, 
as  necessary  to  salvation(4),  unless  it  was  compensated 
by  a  bloody  baptism  i.  e.  martyrdom(5).  With  baptism,  it 
was  corpmon  to  join  exorcism  and  unction. 

Note.     Singular  idea  of  some  fathers,  concerning  baptism 

performed  in  the  lower  world. (6) 
n)  Apol.  maj.  p.  79,80. 

(2)  Barnabas^  Ep.  c.  3.  Theoph,  ad  Autol.  Lib.  IL  p.  361. 
Clemens  Alex.  Strom.  I.  c.  6  &c.  l^erfullian,  de  Bap- 
tismo.  c  4,  5,  6,  16.  Basil  the  Gr.  Homil.  de  Baptismo. 
(0pp.  T.  II.)  Gregory  Nyss.  de  Baptismo  Christi. 
(0pp.  T.  III.)  Cyril  Jerus.  Catech.  T.  c.  3.  MI.  c.  11, 
16.  XVIL  C.37.  XX.  c.  6.  Gregory  Naz.  Orat.  XL. 
Augustine^^nc\nr\(\,  ad  Laurent,  c.  43,  64. 

(3)  Turiullian,  adv.  Prax.  c.  26.  Irenaeus,  adv.  Haer. !. 
c.  18.  Basil  the  Gr.  de  Spir.S,  c.  27. — Sprinkling  used: 
Cyprian,  Ep.  69,  ad  Masrntim,  p.  186  &c. 

(4)  Irenaeus,  adv.  Haer.  III.  c.  17.  Origen,  Exhort,  ad 
Martyr,  sec.   30.     Tertullian  de  Baptismo,  c.  12,  13. 


OV    DOGMATIC    HISTORT.  83 

Augustine  de  Peccator.   mentis  et  remiss.   Lib.  III.  c. 
3 — 5,  and  c.  12,  13.  Enchirid.  ad  Laurent,  c.  43. 

(5)  Origen,  Exhort,  ad  Martyr,  sec.  30.  Tertull.  de  Bapt 
c.  16.   Cyprian,  Ep.  73. 

(6)  Clemens  Alex.  Strom.  Lib.  IL  p.  452,  and  VL  p.  762, 
763. 

Sec.  100.     Infant  Baptism. 

All  the  earlier  traces  of  infant  baptism,  are  very  unde-r 
dsive ;  and  Tertullian{\)  is  the  first  who  mentions  it, 
to  disapprove  of  it.  On  the  contrary,  Origen  (2)  and 
Cyprian  (3)  patronize  it.  In  the  fourth  century,  its  le- 
gality was  univ^ersally  admitted  (4),  notwithstanding  the 
fatliers  often  found  occasion,  to  warn  christians  against 
delaying  it;  and  even  Peloigius  (5)  did  not  dare  to 
question  its  correctness.  Augustine  (6)  assigned  to  it 
the  distinct  object,  to  take  away  the  innate  sin,  and  guilt 
of  the  child  :  and  by  his  views  of  it,  the  general  practice 
of  it  was  promoted. 

Historians.     Wm.  Wall,  History  of  Infant  Baptism ;  Lend. 

1705.  2  vol.  8vo. 
/.  G.  Walch,  Hisioria  Paedobaptismi  IV.  priorum  saecu- 

lor  ; — in  his  Miscell.  Sacra.  1744. 
David  Rees,  Infant  Baptism   no  institution  of  Christ;' and 

the  rejection  of  it,  justified  from  Scripture  and  antiquity  ; 

Lond.  1734.  8vo. 
Robert  Robinson,  The  history  of  Baptism  : — abridged  by  D. 

Benedict.     Boston  1817.  8vo.    • 

(1)  de  Baptismo.  c.  18. 

(2)  in  Levit.  Homil.  VIII.  (0pp.  T.  II.  p.  230.)  in  Ev. 
Lti.  Homil.  XV.  Comment,  in  Ep.  ad  Rom.  Lib.  v.  (0pp. 
T.  iv.  p.  565.) 

(3)  Ep.  adFidum.  p.  158. 

(4)  Gregory  Naz.  Orat.  xl.  Gregory  Nyss.  do  Inflintibus, 
qui  pracmnture  abripiuntur.  (Opp.  T.  III.)  Augustine,  de 
Genesi  ad  Literam.  Lib.  x.  c.  23.  &c.  A^^c. 

(5)  Professio  Fidei. 


84  muenscher's  elements 

(6)  Ep.  CLVII.  sec  11.  Ep.  XCVIIL  Ep.  CLXXXVII. 

sec.  22  &-C.  de  Genesi  ad  Lit.  Lib.  x.  c.  23.  de  Peccator. 
meritis  et  remiss.  Lib.  1.  c.  26. 

Sec.   101.     Heretical  baptisms. 

Much  longer,  continued  the  doubt,  whether  those  who 
were  baptized  by  heretics,  had  received  valid  baptism. 
The  African  churches  were  convinced,  that  true  baptism 
existed  only  in  the  Catholic  church.  In  this,  they  dif- 
fered from  the  Komish  church ;  and  the  bishops,  Ste- 
phen and  Cyprian,  had  a  controversy  on  the  subject. 
Even  the  decrees  of  the  Councils  of  Nice  and  Constanti- 
nople, did  not  produce  uniformity  of  sentiment.  The 
Catholics  of  Africa,  were  led  by  the  Donatist  controversy, 
to  depart  from  their  former  principles.  Aus^ustine  de- 
vised the  doctrine,  that  the  validity  of  baptism  depends, 
not  on  the  orthodoxy  of  the  church  in  which,  or  of  the 
person  by  whom,  it  is  administered,  but  solely  on  the 
invocation  of  the  Trinity ;  yet  that  baptism  can  conduct 
to  salvation,  only  those  that  belong  to  the  true  church. 
This  doctrine,  he  labired  to  establish,  yet  with  the  great- 
est tenderness  for  the  reputation  of  Cyprian. 

References,      Cyprian,    Epistolae   LXIX — LXXV. — Au- 
gustine, de  baptismo,  contra  Donatistas,  Libri  VL 

Sec.  102.     The  Lord^s  Supper. 

Historians.  De  Eucharistiae  sacramento,  Lib.  Ill  ;  authore 

Edm.  Albertin ;  Daventr.  1654.   Fol. 
Histoire  de  I'Eucharistie ;  par  Matth.  de  Larroque,  Arnst. 

1671.   8vo. 
Rudolph  Hospinian,  Historia  Sacramentaria  ;  Genev.  1681. 

II.  vol.  Fol. 
J.  Aug.  Emes%  Antimuratorius  ;  Lips.    1755.  and  in  his 

Opusc.  Theol.  Lips.  1792. 
History  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  :  (in  German,) 

in  Cramer's  Continuation  of  Bonnet's  Introduction  to  the 

History  of  the  world  and  of  religion,  vol.  V.  P.  II. 
La  perpetuite  de  1'  eglise  catholique  touchant  V  Eucharistie  ; 

Paris  1670— 74.  ILL  vol.  with  volumes  IV.  and  V.  (by 


OF    DOGMATIC    liISTORY*  85 

Euseb,  Reinaudot,)  Paris  1711,  1713.  4to.  and  the  wri- 
tings in  reply,  by  J.  Claude, 

.The  Lord's  supper  (r^x^p^ia,  (fwa^ig  ivXoyta,  missa)  was 
solemnized  by  christians,  after  the  example  of  Christ, 
and  as  a  memorial  of  him.  After  the  second  century, 
it  was  likened  to  the  pagan  mysteries,  and  was  kept  from 
the  sight  of  all  unbaptized  persons.  In  it,  common  bread 
was  used,  and  tlie  wine  was  mixed  with  water.  The 
custom  of  some  heretical  sects,  of  witholding  the  cup, 
or  of  presenting  water  instead  of  wine,  was  disapproved. 
Baptized  children(l)  were  allowed  to  partake  of  the 
Lord's  supper.  The  zeal  of  the-  fathers  led  them  to  ex- 
hibit, under  the  strongest  imagery,  this  transaction  as  very 
holy,  very  efficacious,  and  very  awful. 

(1)  Cyprian,  de  Lapsis,  p.  132. 

Sec.  103.  The  hordes  Supper  as  a  sacrifice. 
According  to  the  concordant  decisions  of  the  ancient 
fathers,  the  Lord's  supper  is  to  be  considered,  as  a  ^a- 
crifioe  (^uo'ia,  ^potf^popa,  oblatio,  sacriliciinn.)  Yet  Jus- 
tin(l)  and  Irenaeus(2)  make  it  to  be  only  k  thank-offer^ 
ing.  The  African  fathers,  TertuHian(3)  and  Cyprian(4), 
speak  of  offerings /or  the  dead;  and  the  latter  represents 
the  Lord's  supper,  as  being  an  act  of  the  priest,  in  which 
he,  in  Christ's  stead,  presents  bread  and  wine  to  God,  in 
imitation  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ.  Jn  the  fourth  centu- 
ry, the  Lord's  supper  was  universally  considered,  as  an 
unbloody  sacrifice;  whereby  the  accompanying  prayers  of 
the  living  and  the  dead,  obtained  peculiar  efficacy,  and 
were  potent  to  the  averting  of  all  sorts  of  evils.  The 
idea,  that  the  Lord's  supper  was  a  memorial  of  the  sacri- 
fice of  Christ,  was  gradually  supplanted  by  another,  that 
it  was  a  repeiition  of  that  sacrifice ;  and  the  doctrine  of 
purgatory  being  introduced,  the  idea  of  the  sacrifice  cj 
the  Mass,  grew  up  in  the  Latin  church. 

(1)  Apolo<r.    maj.  p,   82,  83.  (p.  98.  ed.  Col.)   Dial,   p. 


66  iiuenscher's  elements 

(2)  adv.  Haeres.  Lib.  IV.  c.  17,  18. 

(3)  de   Corona,  c.  3.  de  Monogam.  c.  10. 
{4)  Epist.  LXllI.  p.  149,  155. 

Reference,  Essay  of  a  History  of  the  doctrine  of  a  sacri- 
fice in  the  Lord's  supper;  (German,)  in  the  Got'.ingen- 
chen  Bihliothek  der  neuesten  theol.  Literatur,  vol.  11.  p. 
159,  and  317. 

Sec.  104.     Presence  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist, 

As  all  christians  considered  the  Lord's  supper,  to  be 
a  means  of  communion  with  Christ,  two  modes  of  ex- 
plaining this  communion  early  appeared.  Some,  as  Ter- 
tuUian{i)  Origen[2)  &nd  Cyprian{2),  regarded  the 
bread  and  wine,  as  mere  symbols  of  the  body  and  blood 
of  Jesus.  Others,  as  Justin{4)  diwd  Irenaeus[d)  (though 
with  very  indistinct  conceptions,)  supposed  that,  the  Logos, 
united  himself  with  the  bread  and  wine,  and  thus  trans- 
formed  them  into  his  body  and  blood,  and  into  food,  that 
imparted  immortality  to  the  body  of  the  partaker  of  it. 
Ahhough  this  diversity  of  sentiment,  did  not  afterwards 
disappear,  yet  subsequent  to  the  fourth  century,  the  lat- 
ter hypothesis  acquired  an  ascendency,  more  and  more 
manifest ;  and  it  became  common,  to  speak  of  the  trans- 
formation  of  the  elements,  although  the  church  had  not 
yet  an  established  belief  on  the  subject. 

(1)  Tertullian,  contra  Marcion,  Lib.  IV.  c.  40. 

(2)  Comment,  in  Maith.  0pp.  T.  III.  p.  498—500 
(3)Ep.  LXIII.    p.  148  &c.  153  &c. 

(4)  Apolojr.  mnj.  p.  82,  83, 

(5)  adv.  Haer.  V.  c.  2. 

Jleference.  Phil,  Marheineke,  Sane.  Patrum  de  praesen- 
tia  Christi  in  coena  Domini  sententia  triplex  ;  s.  saqrae 
Eucharistiae  historia  tripartita  ;  Heidelb,  1811.  4to. 

Sec.  105.     Of  the  sacraments  in  general. 

The  word   sacrament  (sacramentum,   in  Gr.  i^^vgripm) 

was  sometimes  used  for  religious  doctrines,  that  transcend 

the  comprehension  of  men,  and  sometimes  for  religious 

rites.     Among  these  rites,  baptism  and  the  Lord's  sup- 


OF    DOGMATI-C    HISTORY.  87 

per  held  the  first  rank ;  and  they  were  described  as  meansy 
by  which  God  imparts  his  grace  to  men.  Unction,  how- 
ever, was  distinguished  from  baptism;  2ind  Augustine^l) 
added  the  two  institutions  of  ordination  and  marriage. 
The  pseudo-Dionosius  Areopagita(2)  enumerates  six 
sacraments  ;  namely  baptism,  the  Lord's  supper,  unc- 
tion, ordination,  monastic  vows,  and  religious  rites  on  the 
dead. 

(1)  contra  Ep.  Parmeniani  Lib.  II.  c.  12.  Sec.  28.  de  Bo- 
no   conjucrali,  c.  7.  et  15. 

(2)  Dlonys.  Areop.  de  Ecclesiastica  Ilierarchia,  0pp.  T. 
I.   p.  229.     ■ 


SECOSTD  PERIOD. 

THE  MIDDLE  AGES,  A.  D.  600 1517. 


PART  I. 

GENERAL   VIEW    OF    THE    STATE    OF    THEOLOGY. 

Sec.  106.  State  cf  theology  among  the  Greeks,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  period. 
The  state  of  the  Greek  empire,  which,  in  consequence 
of  enemies  without  and  bad  management  within,  was 
threatened  with  dissohuion,  raised  obstructions  to  the 
progress  of  theology.  But  still  greater  obstacles  lay  in 
the  theological  disposition  of  the  age  ;  which  was  govern- 
ed by  authority,  looked  at  the  bible  through  the  glass  of 
the  earlier  expositors,  compiled  systems  of  faith  from 
the  works  of  preceding  times,  and  was  violently  passion- 
ate against  heretics.  The  contests  concerning  the  luilh 
of  Christ,  and  concerning  pictures  in  churches,  called 
forth  indeed  the  activity  of  theologians,  but  gave  no  fa- 
vorable direction  to  their  minds. 

Sec.  107.  John  Damascenes. 
From  the  materials,  which  the  various  controversies 
of  the  preceding  ages  and  the  industry  of  the  fathers  had 
accumulated,  John  of  Damascus  formed  an  orthodox 
system  of  divinity  (^xi^stfi^  ax^i^.r^g  tt.c:  cp^o(5ogou  tj^sw^)  ; 
which  was  received  with  great  applause,  on  account  of 
the  uncommon  learning  of  the  author,  and  his  reputa- 
tion earned  in  the  field  of  orthodox  warfare.  Ahhough 
we  are  not  to  look  there,  for  natural  interpretations  of 
scripture,  and  candid  investigations  of  subjects;  yet  the 
work  commends  itself,  by  a  happy  selection  of  thought* 


muenscher's  elements,  etc.  89 

fl'om  approved  writers,  by  clearness  of  expression,  and 
by  the  attempt  to  give,  with  the  aid  of  the  Aristotelian 
philosophy,  new  confirmations  and  greater  unity  to  the 
received  theology. 

References.  lo.  Damasceni  0pp.  cura  Mich.  Le  Quien, 
Paris,  1712.  11.  vol.  Fol.  Epitome  universae  theolo- 
giae  ;  s.  Explicatio  IV.  libror.  Damasceni  Chrysorrhoae, 
de  orlhodoxa  fide  ;  auctore  Christoph  Pelargo ;  Francf. 
1605.  4to.  Rd.sler^s  Bibliothek  der  Kirchenvater,  vol. 
VIII.  p-    248—532. 

Sec.  108.  Greek  theology  subsequently. 
After  John  Damascen,  the  cultivation  of  theology, 
among  the  Greeks,  still  declined  :  and,  was  directed  sole- 
ly, to  the  prosecution  of  the  contest  respecdng  image- 
worship;  to  the  attacking  of  manichaeism,  as  revived  by 
the  Paulicians ;  and  to  the  points  of  doctrine,  contested 
between  the  Greeks  and  the  Latins.  Those  inclined  to 
attempt  something  more,  as  Euthymius  Zigabenus  (d. 
circ.  A.  D.  1116)  and  JVicetas  Choniates,  compiled 
collections  of  sentences  from  the  fathers,  against  the  he- 
retics. The  detached  parties,  the  Nestorians  (Chaldaic 
christians,)  and  the  Monophy sites,  (Jacobites,)  had  for 
dogmatic  writers — the  former,  Ebed  Jesu  (d.  1318) 
and  the  latter,  Jacobus  of  Tagrit  (d.  1231)  and  Abulfa- 
radsch  (d.  1286.) 

Notices.  Euthymii  Zigaheni,  cravocrXia  Ooyiiarixr]  rr\g  op^o- 
Solou  ifig-TSiA^S  published,  Lat.  in  the  Biblioth.  maxima  Pa- 
trum,  T.  XIX.  and  Gr.  Targov.  1710.  Fol.  Nicetae 
Choniatis  ^ricfavpog  op^o^o^ia^.  See  Bandini  Eccles. 
Graecae  Monum.  T-  II.  p.l  &  c.  Ebed  Jesu  Margarita  ; 
s.  de  vera  Fide.  See  Assejnanni  BihWoih.  Orient.  Tona. 
III.  P.  I.  Jacobus  Tagrit.  Liber  Thesaurorum.  See 
Asseman  !.  c.  T.  II.  p.  237.  Abulfaragii  candela- 
brum sanctorum  de  fundamentis  ecclesiae.  Ibid.  p.  284. 

Sec  109.  State  of  theology  among  the  Latins, 
In  the  newly  erected  western  kingdoms,  learning  sunk 
faster  and  deeper,  than  it  did  in  the  East ;  yet  here  also, 
9 


90  biuenscher's  elements 

the  like  firm  adherence  to  the  earlier  systems  of  belief, 
prevailed.  The  Romish  Bishops  distinguished  them- 
selves, by  their  zeal  against  the  Monothelites,  and  the  op- 
posers  of  image  vvorsliip.  Uidore  of  Seville,  is  little  more 
than  an  undiscriminating  compiler  of  sentences  from  the 
works  of  Augustine  and  Gregory.  Tajo  of  Saragossa, 
and  Ildefonsus  of  Toledo,  made  similar  compilations. 

Notices.  Isidori  Hispalensis  0pp.  Madrid,  1778.  II.  vol. 
Fol.  andhyF.  Arm/Zo,  Rornae,  1797—1803.  VII.  vol. 
4to.  In  which  are,  Sententiarum  Lihri  IJI.  Also  his 
Etymoloiries.  Lib.  VIL  and  VIII.  contain  explanations  of 
many  points  in  iheoloiry. 

Tajonis  Caesaravgustani  Sententiarum  Lib.  V. 

lldefonsi  Toletani  Annotatt.  de  ctigiiitione  haptismi,  Li- 
ber;  in  StepL  Baluzii  Miscellanea,  T.  VI.  p.  1.  Pa- 
ris, 1713. 

Sec.  110.  Age  of  Charlemagne, 
In  the  empire  of  the  Franks,  Charlemagne  aw^akened 
the  slumbering  love  of  science.  He  and  his  assistants — 
among  whom  Alcuin  was  prominent — exercised  their 
ingenuity,  in  applying  the  theology  of  the  fathers  to  the 
controversies  respecting  image  worship,  and  with  the 
Adoptionists.  In  the  schools  established  by  Charlemagne, 
various  learned  men  were  trained,  who  became  con- 
spicuous, by  their  investigations  concerning  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  the  doctrine  of  election.  Yet  one  individual, 
John  Scotus,  distinguished  himself  among  his  contempo- 
raries, by  his  uncommon  boldness  of  thought.  He  also 
transplanted  the  writings  of  the  supposed  Dionysius  Ar- 
eopagita,  into  the  soil  of  the  Latin  churches. 

Notices,     Flaccus  Alcuinus,  0pp. — cura  J.  Frobenii ;  Ra- 

tisbon.  1777.  H.  Tom.  IV.  vol.  Fol. 
Jo  Scotus,  de  Divisione  naturae.  Lib.  V.  Oxon.  1609. 

Hincmarus  RhemensiSf  0pp. — cura  Ja.  Slrmondi;  Paris 

1645.il  Vol.  Fol. 

Sec.  111.     Preparatory  steps  to  Scholastic  theology. 
Historians,     Important  materials,  for  a  history  of  scholastic 


OF    DOGMA.TIC    HISTORY.  91 

theology,  are  contained  in  the  Histoire  literaire  de  la 
France,  (yet  reachinsr  only  to  the  12th  century,)  and  in 
the  Historia  universitatis  Parisiensis,  authore  Caes.  Egas» 
Bulaeo.  Pans  1665—73.  VI.  vol.  Fol.— The  history 
itself  is  best  given  by, 

Ad.  Tribbechovius,  de  Doctoribus  scholasticis,  cum  Praef, 
Libro.   C.  A,  Heumonn,  Jena.  1719. 

/,  A.  Cramer,  Continuation  o^  Bos  suet's  General  History  ; 
(in  German,)  vol.  V.  VI.  VII. 

J.  M.  Schroeckh,  History  of  the  Christian  Church  ;  (in 
German,)  vol.  XXV— XXXIV. 

Its  history,  philosophically  considered,  is  best  giv* 
en  by, 

Brucker,  Historia  critica  Philosophiae  ;  Tom.  HI. 

Tiedemann,  The  Spiritof  speculative  Philosophy  ;  (in  Ger- 
man,) Vol.  IV.  and  V. 

Eberstein,  Natural  Theology  of  the  Scholastics ;  (in  Ger- 
man,) Lips.  1803. 

Tennemanuy  History  of  Philosophy  ,*  (in  German,)  vol. 
Vlll. 

The  activity,  which  Charlemagne  had  imparted  to  tha 
study  of  theology,  disappeared,  so  early  as  the  ninth 
century ;  and  w^as  seen  no  more,  till  the  last  half  of  the 
eleventh  century,  when  dialectics  was  again  prosecuted, 
with  impassioned  ardour,  and  Roscelin  shewed  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  Nominalists.  The  schools  in  France, 
then  flourished  again ;  and  the  cathedral  school  of 
Tours,  awakened  emulation  in  the  monastic  school  of  Le 
Bee.  The  controversy  respecting  the  Lord's  Supper, 
carried  on  by  Lanfrank  (d.  1088),  against  Berengarius 
(d.  1080),  in  which  philosophical  argumentation  was 
employed,  called  forth  close  thinking,  and  gave  new 
activity  to  the  speculative  powers. 

Notices,  Berengarius  Turonensis,  or  Announcement  of 
one  of  his  important  works  ;  (in  German,)  by  Gott»  Eph. 
Lessing;  Brunsw.  177v). —  Beienijarins  Turonensis  ;  by 
C'  F'  Sfdudlin ;  in  his  and  if,  G.  Tzschirner's  Archiv 


92 

fiir  alte  und  neue  Kirchengeschichte,  vol.  II.  P.  I.  p. 
1  &c. 
Lanfranci  Cantuariensis  Opera  ;  evulgavit  Lucas  Dacheri- 
us.     Paris  1648.  Fol. 

Sec.  1 12.  Anselm  and  Hildebert, 
The  proper  commencement  of  scholastic  theology,  or 
of  attempts  to  establish  the  received  doctrines  of  faith  on 
philosophic  principles,  is  to  be  ascribed  to  Anselm  of 
Canterbury  (d.  1109);  who  attempted  to  raise  many- 
articles  of  the  received  faith,  to  the  rank  of  demonstra- 
tive truths.  Hildebert  (a  Lavardino,  Ep.  Cenomanen- 
sis,  and  then)  Archbishop  of  Tours  (d.  1132),  in  his 
Tractatus  Theologicus,  embraced  most  of  the  theolo- 
gical tenets  then  discussed,  in  one  connected  discourse. 
About  this  time,  in  addition  to  the  existing  schools,  larger 
seminaries  of  learning  began  to  be  erected,  which  spread 
wider  this  philosophizing  theology ;  in  which,  the  uni- 
versity of  Paris  took  the  lead,  through  the  whole  of  the 
middle  ages. 

Notices.      Anselmi   Cantuariensis    Opera  ; — cura    Gahr. 

Gerberon.  ed.  2,  Paris  1721.  Fol. 
Hildeberti  Opera  ^    cura  Ant.   Beaugendre ;    Paris  1708. 

Fol. 

Sec.  113.     Contest  respecting  philosophic  theology. 

This  new  shape  of  theology  would,  in  various  respects, 
naturally  appear  suspicious,  in  the  eyes  of  those  habitua- 
ted to  the  old  mode  of  teaching,  or  the  Theologi  Positivi. 
Also  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy,  over  which  the  Popes 
had  elevated  themselves  to  unlimited  power,  could  not 
be  indifferent  to  this  freedom  of  thought;  and  especially, 
as  even  at  that  very  time,  they  saw  their  rights  assailed, 
by  the  new  sects  that  were  rising  up.  Anselm  and 
Hildebert,  indeed,  in  consequence  of  their  high  respecta- 
bility, and  their  prudence,  had  no  collision  with  the 
church.  But  the  higher  daring  of  their  successors,  met 
with  restraints.  The  open  hearted  Peter  Abelard  (d. 
1142J  was  subdued,  by  the  great  influence  of  St.  Ber-^ 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  93 

nard  of  Clairvaux  (d.  1 153) ;  and  Gilbert  of  Porretta  (d. 
1 J  54)  met  with — not  indeed  the  same— but  a  similar  fate. 

Notices,  Collectio  judiciorum  de  novis  erroribus,  qni  ab 
initio  seculi  XII. — in  ecclesia  proscripti  sunt ; — opera 
Car,  du  Plessis  d'  Argeutre ;  Paris  1728 — 36.  III. 
Vol.  Fol. 

Pet.  Abaelardi  Opera ;— cura  Andr  Quercetani;  Paris 
1616.  4to. — Theologiae  ciiristianae  Lib.  V.  in  Edm. 
Martene^s  Thesaur.  Anecdotoiuni.  Tom.  V.  p.  il39. — 
F,  C.  Schlosser,  Abaelard  und  Dulcinj  (in  German,) 
Gotha  1807.  8vo. 

Sec.  114.     Further  advances  of  scholastic  theology. 

Warned  by  the  example  of  Abelard,  some  of  his  con- 
temporaries carefully  avoided  offending  the  church. 
Robert  Pulleyn  (d.  about  1153)  even  became  a  Cardi- 
nal; and  Hugo  of  S.  Victor  (d.  1164)  enjoyed  the 
friendship  of  St.  Bernard.  Richard  of  St.  Victor  (d. 
1173)  labored  to  explain  and  confirm  mystic  theology, 
by  metaphysical  philosophy.  Robert  of  Melun  (d. 
1173)  and  Alan  of  Ryssel  (ab  Insulis,  d.  1203)  w^rote 
compilations  of  philosophical  views  in  theology ;  and  the 
latter  distinguished  himself,  by  attempting  to  supj)ort  all 
doctrines  of  faith,  with  mathematical  demonstrations. 
But  Peter  Lombard  (d.  1164)  eclipsed  all  his  predeces- 
sors. His  work,  which  is  a  compilation  and  comparison 
of  the  opinions  of  all  the  earlier  theologians,  obtained 
universal  respect.  He  was  indeed,  together  with  his 
pupil  Peter  of  Polctiers  (d.  1206),  accused  of  many 
errors;  and  Walter  of  St.  Victor  represented  him  as 
one  of  the  corrupters  of  France  :  yet  his  book  triumphed 
over  all  its  enemies,  so  as  even  to  claim  to  be  free  from 
plagiarism. 

Notices,  Roberti  PuUi  Sententiarum  Lib.  VIII.  et  Petri 
Petaviensis  Sententiarum  Lib.  V. — studio  Hugonis  Ma- 
thoud;  Paris  1655.  Fol. 

Hugonis  a  St,  Victorcyde  Sacramentis  ecclesiae,  Lib.  11. — 
in  his  Opp.  Rothomagi  1648.  Fol. 
9^ 


94 

Richardi  a  St,  Victore  Opp.  Rothom.  1660.  Fol. 

Extracts  from  the  unpublished  writings  of  Robert  ofMeluns, 
are  in  Bulaei  Hist.  Univer.  Paris.  Tom.  II.  p.  585 — 
626. 

Alani  ah  Insulis,  Libri  V.  de  Arte  ;  s.  de  articulis  catholi- 
cae  fidei  ; — in  Pezii  Thesaurus  Anecdot.  T.  I.  P.  II.  p. 
475,  &c. 

Petri  Lomhardi  Sententiarum  Lib.  IV. — often  published  ; 
e.  g.  Louv.  1553.  Fol.  Colon.  1576.  8vo. — (^Lamberti 
Danaei  Prolegomena  in  Librum  primym  Sententiarum 
Lombardi ; — in  his  Opuscula'I'heol.Genev.  1583.  Fol.) — 
Bandini  Sententiarum  theologicarum  Lib.  IV.  Viennae 
1519.  Fol. 

Sec.  115.  Influence  of  the  monastic  orders  on  the  scho- 
lastic theology. 
Since  the  time  of  Innocent  III.  (A.  D.  1198,)  the 
Popes  assumed  the  freer  use  of  legislative  power  in  mat- 
ters of  faith,  and  were  more  active  in  suppressing  all 
opinions  that  displeased  them.  The  then  recent  orders 
of  Dominicans  and  Franciscans,  forced  their  way  into  the 
theological  chairs,  outshone  the  other  doctors,  and  impart- 
ed to  theology  something  of  the  spirit  of  their  orders. 
To  them  it  belonged,  to  combine  the  Aristotelian  philo- 
sophy with  strict  orthodoxy,  and  thus  reconcile  the  church 
to  that  philosophy.  Alexander  of  Hales  (d.  1245)  and 
Albert  the  Great,  the  most  learned  of  all  the  scholastics, 
led  the  way.  Thomas  Aquinas  (d.  1274)  excelled  all 
that  preceded  him,  in  acuteness,  and  in  the  multitude  of 
theological  questions,  w^hich  he  discussed.  His  contem- 
porary, John  Bonaventure  (d.  1274),  was  not  so  pene- 
trating ;  but  he  endeavored  to  give  nutriment,  not  only  to 
the  understanding,  but  to  the  imagination  and  the  heart 
of  the  reader.  John  Duns  Scotus  (d.  1308),  the  most 
subtle  and  the  most  obscure  of  all  the  doctors  of  that  age, 
differed  from  Thomas  Aquinas  on  many  points,  and  form- 
ed a  distinct  school.  The  Thomists  and  the  Scotists  lived 
in  continual  warfare  with  each  other. 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY,  95 

Notices,  Alexandri  Halesii  Summa  universae  theologiae  ; 
Colon.  1576.  Fol. 

Alberti  Magni  Opera;  cura  Petri  Jammi ;  Lugd.  1651. 
XXI  Vol.  Fol. — or  which  ;  Cornmentarii  in  Libros  IV. 
Sententiarum,  Bas.  1506.  IV  vol. — Summa  theologica, 
P.  I.  et  II.  Bas.  1507.  II  vol.  Fol. 

Thomae  Aquinatis  Opera  ;  Rom.  1572.  XVII  vol.  Fol. — 
Venet  1745  &c.  XX  vol.  Fol.— Of  which  ;  Commen- 
tarii  in  Libros  Sententiarum  ;   (often  printed  e.  g.)     Pa- 

-  ris  1659.  IV  vol.  Fol. — Siimmae  totius  theologiae  Lib. 
in.  Antw.  1624.  Fol.  (The  genuineness  of  this  Summa, 
was  contested  by  Jo.  Launoy  ;  but  defended  by  Natalis 
Alexander,  in  an  appropriate  Essay  ;  Historia  Eccles. 

'     Saecul.  XIIL  et  XIV.  Tom.  VII.  p.  391.) 

Joannis  Bonaventurae  Opera;  Romae  1588 — 96.  VlII. 
Vol.  Fol. — Of  which  :  Commentarii  in  Libros  IV.  Sen- 
tentiarum, Centiloquium  Lib.  IV.  Priviloquiiim  Lib.  Vll. 

Jo,  Duns  Scoii  Opera  ;  curante  Luc.  Wadding;  Lugd. 
1639.  XII.  Vol.  Fol.  Of  whioh:  Qnodlibeta,  et  Com- 
mentarii in  IV.  Sententiarum  Libros.  Venet.  1616.  IV. 
Vol.  Fol. — OpusParisiense  ;  Antw.  1620. — Qnaestiones 
quodlibetariae  ;  Antw.  1620.  Fol. 

Sec.  116.  The  later  scholastics. 
After  these  men,  the  study  of  philosophic  theology  was 
indeed  pursued  with  industry  and  eagerness,  but  it  de- 
generated into  servile  imitation,  or  useless  puzzling.  Yet 
there  were  some,  who  rose  above  their  contemporaries. 
Durand  of  St.  Poursain  (d.  1333),  although  a  Domin- 
ican, dared  to  contradict  St.  Thomas.  William  Occam, 
(d.  1347)  boldly  deviated  from  Scotus;  and  even  with- 
stood, spiritedly,  the  Pope.  Raymund  de  Sabunde  (d. 
about  1526)  was  the  first,  who  treated  of  natural  theo- 
logy, in  an  appropriate  work.  Gabriel  Bid  (d.  1496) 
was  the  last  of  the  distinguished  scholastics  of  this  period. 

Notices.  Gulielmi  Durandi  de  Sancto  Porciano,  Com- 
mentaria  in  IV.  Libros  Sententiarum  ;  Paris  1615. 
Fol. 

Gulielmi  Occam,  Quaestiones  in  Libros  IV.  Sententiarum  ; 


96  muenscher's  elements 

Luorcl.  1495.  Fol. — Ejusdern,  Centiloquium  Iheologicum; 

Lugd.  1496.  Fol, 
Theolo^^ia  naturalus,  s.  Liber  creaturarum  ;  authore  Ray- 

mundo  de  Sahunde;  Fraiicf.  1635. 
Gabrielis  Blel^  Collectorium  in  Libros  IV.  Sententiarum  ; 

Tubing.  1502.  II,  vol.  Fol. 

Sec.  1 1 7.  Causes  of  the  downfall  of  scholastic  theology . 
The  foundations  of  this  theology  were  tottering;  and 
the  modes  of  proceeding  in  it,  broughtgthe  germ  of  its  dis- 
solution along  with  them.  They  sought  to  exercise  their 
own  powers  of  investigation,  and  yet  to  leave  the  influence 
of  the  fatliers  untouched,  and  to  construe  the  Bible  only 
as  they  did.  Unlike,  as  the  theology  of  the  fathers  and 
the  Aristoletian  philosophy  were,  both  in  spirit  and  in  first 
principles;  an  attempt  was  made,  to  unite  them.  This 
constitutional  debility  of  the  scholastic  system,  was  the 
sooner  shaken,  in  consequence  of  other  causes.  Many 
christians  were  disgusted  with  precepts,  which  merely  ex- 
ercised, or  rather  puzzled  the  understanding,  with  super- 
fine speculations,  and  gave  no  nutriment  to  the  soul ;  and 
this  disgust  was  increased,  by  the  disagreeable  contests 
between  the  Thomists  and  the  Scotists.  John  Charlier 
Gerson  (d.  1320),  JVicholas  de  Clemangis,  and  other 
discerning  men,  animadverted  with  earnestness  upon  the 
unprofitableness  of  such  instructions.  The  revival  of 
better  taste,  and  a  better  knowledge  of  language,  intro- 
duced contempt  for  the  coarse  style  and  the  barbarous 
technicals  of  the  scholastics.  Confidence  in  the  autho- 
ity  of  Aristotle  was  shaken,  by  the  rise  of  new  Platonists  ; 
and  a  more  independent  spirit,  was  anxious  to  break  the 
fetters,  in  which  the  human  mind  had  moved  with  so  heavy 
a  gait.  Towards  the  end  of  this  period,  all  the  more 
discerning,  looked  upon  scholasticism,  as  the  relic  of  a 
more  barbarous  age,  and  an  armory  of  rusty  weapons. 

Notice,     Jo.    Gersonis   Opera  ;  studio  Lud.  HI.  Du  Pin ; 
Antw.  1705.  V.  vol.  Fol. 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  97 

PART  II. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  PARTICULAR  DOCTRINES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE    CULTIVATION    OF     THE    DOCTRINES    PREVIOUSLT 
DEFINED. 

Sec.  118.     The  existence  of  God, 

John  Damascenus  founded  belief  of  the  existence  of 
God,  on  the  necessity  of  a  first  cause  of  all  things,  and 
on  the  marks  of  wisdom  and  desiji;n  in  the  created  uni- 
verse. Anselm  of  Canterbury,  with  new  and  acute  rea- 
soning, inferred  the  existence  of  God,  fjfom  the  concep- 
tion of  an  all-perfect  being.  But  he  met  with  an  intelli- 
gent opponent,  in  Gavnilo  a  French  Monk.  His  views 
were  not  adopted  by  Peter  J.ombard ;  but  were  so,  by 
Thomas ;  who  likewise  bestowed  attention  on  the  proof 
from  design,  by  Richard  of  St.  Victor.  Duns  Scotus 
viewed  the  proof,  from  the  mere  conceptions  of  the  mind, 
as  unsatisfactory ;  and  attributed  entire  adequacy,  to  the 
arguments  from  experience.  TViUiam  Occam  represents 
all  demonstration  of  the  existence  of  God,  as  impossible  ; 
and  Raymund  of  Sabunde,  following  the  footsteps  of 
Abelard,  (Theol.christ.p.l349,)inferred  ourbelief  of  God, 
very  much  in  the  manner  of  Kant,  from  the  necessity,  of 
supposing  a  Siipreiiie  Judge  and  Rewarder.  (Theol.  nat. 
Tract.  82,  83.) 

Notices.  Anschn  Canferh.  Proslo^iunri  et  Monolojiinm. — - 
{Gaunilonis)  Liber  pro  insipiente,  contra  Anselrni  in  prcs- 
logio  ratiocinationem.  Anselrni  Liber  apologetiriis,  ron- 
tra  Gaunilonem  respondentem  pro  insipiente.  {W.C.  Xr^ 
Zieglers  Contiabntlon  to  tlie  history  of  belief  of  a  Godj 

(German,)  Getting.  1792.) 


98  muenscher's  elements 


Sec.  1 1 9.  Nature  of  God. 
Pantheism,  founded  on  the  new  Platonic  notions,  wag 
brouglit  forward,  by  John  Scoius  Erigena,  and  defended 
hy  Jlmalricli  of  Bene  (A.D.  1204),  and  his  pupil  David 
JDinant ;  but  it  was  rejected  by  the  church,  and  confuted 
by  Albert  and  Thomas,  Tiie  incomprehensibleness  of 
God,  was  maintained  with  great  strenuousness ;  and  three 
ways  for  attaining  to  a  knowledge  of  God,  were  re- 
commended ;  namely  via  eminentiae,  via  negationis,  and 
via  causalilatis.  The  divine  attributes  were  inferred,  from 
the  idea  of  a  supreme  and  necessarily  existing  Being. 
The  omni|)otence  and  omnipresence  of  God,  in  particular, 
were  the  subject  of  many  questions  and  investigations. 
Also  the  unity  of  God,  was  evinced  by  numerous  argu- 
guments,  by  John  Damascenns^  Abelard,  and  Richard  of 
St.  Victor.  On  all  these  subjects,  William  Occam  mani- 
fested the  sceptical  turn  of  a  Bay  le.  , 

Sec.   120.      Trinity. 

The  theologians  employed  the  greatest  art,  to  make 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  more  comprehensible,  and  to 
exhibit  it  as  consonant  with  reason ;  but  they  came  near 
to  marring  the  received  doctrines  of  the  church.  Rosce- 
lin  was  accused,  by  his  opposers,  of  tritheism ;  and  he  was 
condemned  in  the  council  of  Soissons,  A.  D.  1093. 
Abelard  was  taxed,  sometimes  with  tritheism,  and  some- 
times with  Sabellian  errors  ;  the  latter,  with  the  most  1 
plausibility.  Anselm  and  Richard  of  St.  Victor,  in 
their  proofs  of  a  Trinity,  grazed  lightly  on  Sabellianism; 
yet  they  met  with  no  opposition  ;  and  the  views  of  the 
latter,  were  again  brought  forward,  by  Alexander  Hales 
and  others.  Even  to  Peter  Lombard,  great  errors  on 
this  subject,  were  imputed,  by  Joachim,  Abbot  of  Flora  : 
but  Innocent  111.  acquitted  him,  in  the  Lateran  Council 
A.  D.  1215.  The  nice  distinction,  which  Gilbert  of 
Porretta  made,  between  God  himself  nnd  the  attributes 
of  God,  drew  on  him  the  attacks  of  St.  Bernard,  and 


OF   DOGSIATIC    HISTORY.  19 

the  animadvers'ons  of  the  Councils  of  Paris  and  Rheims, 
A.  D.  1 147  and  1248.  In  general,  the  scholastics  found, 
in  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  copious  matter  for  the 
most  acute  speculations  concerning  the  three  Persons, 
and  their  relations  to  each  other. 

Sec.   121.      Creation,  and  Angels. 

The  Aristotelian  hypothesis,  of  the  eter^iity  of  the 
world,  was  confuted  by  the  scholastics  ;  and  yet  several 
of  them,  e.  g.  Thomas  Aquinas,  maintained  that  it  could 
not  be  disprov^ed,  by  the  ]iH;ht  of  nature,  but  only  by  the 
testimony  of  revelation.  Tlie  design  of  God  in  creation, 
was,  according  to  Damascenus  and  Lombard,  to  make 
manifest  to  rational  beings  his  goodness ;  or  according  to 
Thomas,  to  communicate  himself,  as  the  highest  good, 
to  other  beings.  On  the  doctrine  concerning  Angels, 
John  Damascenus  adopted  the  views  of  the  pseudo-Dio- 
nysius  Areopagita,  in  regard  to  the  classification  of  the 
angels ;  and  these  views  were  received  by  the  scholas- 
tics. In  the  I^ateran  Council,  A.  D.  1215,  Pope  Inno- 
cent IIL  established  the  positions,  that  the  angels  are 
spirits,  and  that  God  created  them  holy.  The  questions 
raised,  concerning  the  nature  and  the  creation  of  angels, 
and  concerning  the  apostacy  and  influences  of  evil  spirits, 
were  almost  innumerable.  Lombard  deemed  it  probable, 
that  every  soul  is  attended  by  a  good  and  a  bad  angel ;  and 
this  hypothesis  was  afterwards  repeatedly  brought  forward. 
Sec.   122.     Doctrine  of  Providence, 

Damascenus  collected  the  most  important  ideas  of  the 
Greek  fathers,  respecting  divine  providence.  The  ear- 
lier scholastics  touched  on  this  subject,  only  occasionally, 
when  they  were  treating  of  the  wisdom,  or  of  the  will 
of  God.  Thomas  Aquinas  first  gave  it  a  full  investiga- 
tion. Thatj  this  world  is  the  best  possible  one,  was  held 
by  Anselm  and  Abelard  ;  Thomas  and  Durand  believed, 
that  God  could  have  made  a  better.  \n  regard  to  the 
divine  cooperation,  in  the  acts  of  his  creatures,  Du-- 
rand  contradicted  the  sentiments  of  Ihomas,      Upon 


100  muenscher's  elements 

occasion  of  the  rise  of  some  Cathari,  who  leaned  towards 
Manichaen  sentiments;  the  righteousness  of  God  in  re- 
spect to  the  origination  of  evil,  was  further  investigated 
by  the  scholastics,  in  accordance  with  the  principles  sug- 
gested by  Augustine.  In  regard  to  moral  evil,  (that  which 
merits  punishment,)  they  discriminated  between  the  ante- 
cedent will  of  God,  and  the  consequent ;  and  Thomas 
labored  to  prove,  that,  to  the  perfection  of  the  world, 
beings  were  necessary,  who  were  capable  of  sinning. 
Physical  evil  was  considered  as  the  inseparable,  and  in 
its  ejSects,  beneficial,  consequence  of  sin. 

Sec.  123.  The  person  of  Christ. 
Although  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  had  published  a 
determinate  creed  on  this  subject,  yet  the  theologians  in- 
volved themselves  in  new  speculations  and  perplexities. 
The  question,  whether  there  should  be  attributed  to 
Christ,  only  one  simple  will,  or  a  twofold  will,  produced 
commotion  in  the  East,  and  gave  occasion  to  investigate 
more  fully  the  theandric  operations  in  Christ.  But  at 
length,  the  opinion  of  the  Monothelites  was  put  down,  by 
the  resistance  made  by  the  Popes,  and.  by  the  decision 
of  the  sixth  ecumenical  council,  A.  D.  680.  The  discus- 
sions, respecting  the  connexion  of  the  two  natures  in 
Christ,  were  actively  renewed,  in  the  eighth  century,  in  ' 
consequence  of  the  Adoptionist  contests  ;  and  the  tenet 
of  the  Adoptionists,  [that  Christ  was  the  Son  of  God, 
only  by  adoption,']  was  condemned,  by  the  French 
churches,  and  by  the  Popes.  In  the  ninth  century,  Pas- 
chasius  Radbert  and  Ratram  of  Corbie,  involved  them- 
selves in  a  useless  contest,  respecting  the  manner  in 
which  Christ  was  born.  Lombard,  by  his  solicitude  to 
evince  the  unity  of  the  person  of  Christ,  made  such  nice 
distinctions,  as  brought  on  him  the  charge  of  a  new  here- 
sy, Nihilianism,  [that  the  human  nature  of  Christ,  sepa- 
ate  from  the  divine,  was  nothing.']  In  general,  the  theo- 
logians of  the  scholastic  age,  were  not  satisfied,  with  re- 
tailing the  nice  distinctions  of  the  fathers,  on  this  doc- 
trine, but  tliey  added  a  great  number  of  new  questions 
and  subtilties. 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  101 

Notices,  C.  W.  Fr.  Walck,  Historia  controversiae  Se- 
oul. IX.  de  Partu  beatae  Virginis.     Getting.  1758.  4to. 

On  the  heresy  of  Nihihanism,  of  which  Peter  Lombard  and 
Peter  of  Poictiers  were  accused  ;  (in  German,)  in  Cra- 
wler'* Continuation  of  Bossuet.  vol.  VII.  p.    1  &c. 

» 

Sec.   124.     Man,  particularly  his  soul. 

Respecting  man,  and  especially  the  soul,  after  the  ex- 
ample set  by  John  Damascenus,  much  foreign  matter, 
derived  from  Aristotle's  writings,  was  introduced  into 
theology.  As  to  the  origin  of  the  soul,  it  was  not  yet 
decided,  whether  its  immediate  creation,  or  its  propaga- 
tion, ought  to  be  believed  :  Anselm,  however,  Hugo  of 
St.  Victor,  Robert  Pulleyn,  and  Lombard,  declared  for 
its  creation  ;  and  they  were  followed  by  the  majority  of 
divines.  The  adoption  of  Aristotelian  principles,  might  be 
supposed  hazardous  to  the  doctrine  of  the  immortality  of 
the  soul ;  yet  from  that  very  source,  Thomas  derived 
arguments  for  the  doctrine;  and  of  course,  Scotus  on 
the  contrary,  declared  the  doctrine  not  provable  by  the 
light  of  nature,  and  rested  its  evidence  solely  on  revela- 
tion. Various  proofs  in  support  of  it,  were  adduced  by  Mo- 
neta  of  Cremona,RaymundMartini,RaymundoiSabunde, 
and  Martin  Ficinus,  Jn  the  Council  of  the  Lateran,  held 
A.D.  151  Sjby  Leo  X.  it  was  deemed  necessary,  to  condemn 
explicitly,  the  doctrine  that  the  soul  is  in  its  nature  mor- 
tal ;  and  at  the  same  time^  it  was  forbidden,  to  make  a 
distinction  between  philosophical  and  theological  truth. — 
The  Mosaic  account  of  the  state  of  the  first  human  pair, 
was  explained,  by  John  Damascenus  and  Lombard,  in 
both  a  literal  and  a  spiritual  sense ;  and  all  the  Scholas- 
tics were  content  to  allegorize  copiously  on  the  subject. 
The  image  of  God,  was  distinguished  from  his  likeness, 
by  the  Scholastics,  just  as  by  the  fathers;  and  the  image 
of  God,  was  traced  in  the  rational  nature  and  free  agency 
of  man,  while  likeness  to  him  was  understood  to  mean 
conformity  with  the  divine  wilL 
10 


102  muenscher's  elements 


Sec.  125.  Resurrection  and  judgment. 
The  received  doctrine  of  the  church  respecting  the 
resurrection,  remained  unahered.  Moneta  defended  it, 
at  full  length,  against  the  Cathari.  (Adv.  Catharos  et 
Waldenses  p.  344.)  The  restoration  of  the  identical 
body,  with  all  its  parts,  and  with  the  distinction  of  the  sex- 
es, was  maintained.  On  this  subject,  and  respecting  the 
general  judgment,  a  multitude  of  curious  questions  were 
proposed.  That  the  blessed  will  no  more  sin,  and  lose 
their  bliss ;  and  that  the  damned  can  never  repent  and 
become  happy,  all  admitted.  Their  descriptions  of 
heaven,  were  most  alluring;  of  hell,  the  most  terrific. 
According  to  the  more  general  opinion,  hell-punishment 
consisted  in  actual  fire ;  yet  some,  as  Guido  of  JVogent, 
conceived  of  it,  as  only  mental  suffering,  or  anguish  ari- 
sing from  the  consciousness  of  sin. 

Notice.     Gmbcrtij  de  Pignoribus  Sanctorum.     Lib.  IV.  c. 
4.  Opp.  p.  363. 

Sec.  126.     Truth  of  Christianity. 

While  the  christian  doctrines  were  explained,  critically, 
and  hypercritically,  a  thought  was  rarely  bestowed  on 
the  evidence  of  the  tenableness  of  Christianity  itself. 
This  arose  from  there  being  no  learned  opposers;  from  the 
persuasion,  that  any  doubt  respecting  the  doctrines  held 
by  the  church,  would  be  sinful;  and  from  the  facility  of 
putting  down  any  opposition,  by  coercion  instead  of  ar- 
gument. To  the  enemies  of  Christianity,  were  now 
added  the  Muhammedans;  who  taxed  the  christians 
with  being  polytheists  and  idolaters.  The  common  wri- 
tings, in  opposition  to  them  and  the  Jews,  contained 
little  that  was  of  importance  ;  and  only  Raymund  Mar- 
tini (d.  1286)  appeared  to  advantage  in  the  controversy. 
Yet  while  the  power  of  the  hierarchy,  could  easily  sup- 
press all  attacks  on  the  established  faith,  there  were  visi- 
ble indications,  that  the  enthusiastic  reverence  for  Aristo- 
tle, and  tlie  close  adherence  to  his  writings,  had  misled 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  103 

many  a  thinking  man  to  undervalue  Christianity.  This 
induced  Thomas  Aquinas^  to  write  an  Apology  for  Chris- 
tianity ;  in  which  he  showed,  that  some  christian  doctrines 
are  discoverable  by  reason,  and  that  the  others  are  ac- 
cordant with  reason.  Towards  the  end  of  this  period, 
the  two  contemporaries,  Hieronymus  Savanarola  (d. 
1498)  and  Marsilius  Ficinus  (d.  1499,)  evinced  the 
reasonableness  of  Christianity,  and  also  its  divine  origin : 
the  latter  they  argued,  from  its  sublime  contents,  from  its 
excellent  effects,  from  the  credibility  of  the  Apostles, 
from  miracles  and  prophecies. 

Notices,  llaymundi  Martini  Pugio  ficlei,  contra  Mauros 
et  Judaeos  ;  cum  observationihus  Josephi  de  Voisin,  et 
introductione  Jo.  Ben.  Carpzovii.  Lips.  1687.  Fol. 

S.  Thomae  Summa  catholica,  contra  Gentiles,  Lib.  IV. 
Lugd.  1687.  Fol. 

Marsilii  Flcini  de  Religione  Christiana  et  fidei  pietate ; 
0pp.  Tom.  I.  Paris  1641. 

Hieronymi  Savanarolae  Triumphus  crucis  ;  s.  de  veritate 
•  fidei;  Bas.  1640.  Fol. 

Sec.  127.  The  Holy  Scriptures, 
The  Bible  was  uniformly  held  up  as  a  most  holy  book, 
and  a  source  of  religious  instruction.  The  divinity  ojf 
its  origin,  however,  was  often  rather  assumed  than  shown, 
and  was  only  touched  upon  by  Damascenus ) — a  defect, 
which  Duns  Scotus  endeavored  to  supply.  (Comment, 
in  Lib.  Sentent.  p.  5.)  Their  ideas  of  inspiration  were 
fluctuating  and  indistinct ;  and  were  expressed,  some- 
times more  moderately,  as  by  Agobard  and  Euthymius, 
and  sometimes  more  strongly,  as  by  Thomas  Aquinas; 
but  always  only  incidentally.  Next  to  the  Bible,  tradi- 
tion, as  serving  to  explain  and  extend  the  instructions  of 
the  holy  Scriptures,  held  as  high,  or  rather  a  higher  au- 
thority, than  it  did  in  the  preceding  period.  To  the 
canon  of  the  Bible,  among  the  Latins,  (but  not  among 
the  Greeks,)  the  same  extent  was  given,  as  formerly  by 
Augustine.     The  use  made  of  the  Bible  by  the  WaU 


104  m^enscher's  elements 

densians,  was  an  occasion  of  the  Popes  and  the  Coun- 
cil's setting  bounds  to  its  unrestrained  influence. 

Notices.  For  the  opinion  of  the  later  Syrian  churches, 
respecting  tlie  Apocalypse,  see  Eickhorn's  Introduction 
to  the  N.  T.  (in  German,)  vol.  II.  p.  433. 

Jac,  Usserii  Historia  doumatira  controversiae  inter  Ortho- 
doxos  et  Pontificios,  de  Scripturis  et  Sacris  vernaculis ; — 
locupletavit  Henr,  Wharton;  Lond.  1690.  4to. —  Toh, 
Godof.  H^gelmaier,  de  Libero  Sac.  Script,  usu,  plebi 
christiano  diu  denegato,  tandem  hie  ibi  restituto  ;  Tub. 
1783.  4to. — History  of  the  prohibition  of  the  Bible  ;  (^by 
the  same  author;  in  German.)  Ulm.  1783.  8vo.  A, 
I.  Onyrnus,  Essay  of  a  History  of  the  prohibition  of  the 
Bible;  (in  German,)  Wiirzb.  1786.  8vo. 


CHAPTER  II. 

DEVELOPEMENT  OF  DOCTRINES  NOT  BEFORE  DEFINED. 

Sec.  128.     Procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 

The  disagreement,  which  existed  in  the  former  period, 
but  was  there  scarcely  noticed,  between  the  Latin  and 
the  Greek  churches,  in  regard  to  the  question,  whether 
the  Holy  Spirit  proceeded  from  both  the  Father  and  the 
Son,  or  only  from  the  Father;  now  produced  strong 
sensation.  The  addition  [et  filio]  to  the  Niceno-Con- 
stantinopolitan  Creed,  which  first  appeared  in  Spain,  was 
continually  more  and  more  generally  received,  in  the 
Latin  churches,  notwithstanding  Pope  Leo  III.  refused 
it  his  sanction.  Afterwards,  when  Photius  [Abp.  of 
Constantinople]  charged  the  Latins  with  error  and  for- 
gery, various  western  writers  rose  up  against  him.  The 
accusations  of  Photius  were  renewed,  in  the  eleventh 
century,  by  the  Greeks ;  and  were  retorted  with  vehe- 
mence by  the  Latins.  Thenceforth,  this  subject  was 
one  of  the  principal  points  of  contention  between  the 


OP    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  105 

two  churches,  occupied  the  writers  on  both  sides,  and  in 
every  attempt  at  compromise,  was  an  insurmountable  ob- 
stacle. The  Greeks  were,  indeed,  persuaded  to  accede 
to  the  Latin  notion,  at  the  Councils  of  Lyons  (A.  D. 
1274)  and  of  Florence  (A.  D.  1439);  but  they  soon 
returned  to  their  old  opinion. 

Notices.  In  adaition  to  the  writings  mentioned,  sec.  76, 
see  Petri  Pitlwei  Historia  controversiae  de  piocessione 
Spiritus  S.  Paris  1590.  8vo.— -De  processione  Spir.  S. 
Dissertalio  prima  Damascenica ;  in  the  Opera  Joannis 
Damasceni,  ed.  M.  Le  Quien.  Tom.  I. —  Theophanis 
Procopowitz,  tractatus  de  process.  Sp.  S.  Gothae  1772. 
8vo. 

Sec.   129.     Doctrine  of  sin  and  grace  and  the  kindred 
subjects,  in  the  Greek  church. 

The  Greeks  continued  to  hold  the  system  of  doctrines, 
which  had  been  inculcated  by  their  earlier  doctors,  par- 
ticularly Chrysostom;  and  without  giving  attention  to  the 
modifications,  which,  through  the  influence  of  Augustine, 
had  become  prevalent  among  the  Latins.  In  John  Da- 
mascenus,  we  still'  find  it  represented,  that  Adam's  sin 
brought  death  and  dissolution  on  his  posterity ;  but  not  a 
trace  of  any  propagated  incapacity  for  goodness,  or  of 
any  connate  guilt.  He  acknowledges  that  it  is  impossi- 
ble, without  the  help  of  God,  to  will  and  to  do  what  is 
good;  but  represents  it  as  depending  on  us,  whether  to 
follow  God,  or  the  evil  One ;  and  he  insists,  that  God  al- 
lots the  destiny  of  men,  according  to  their  voluntary  ac- 
tions, (de  Fide  orthodoxa  Lib.  II.  c.  30.  compare  Lib. 
lY.  c.  20.)  The  later  Greek  writers,  as  Theodorus  Stu- 
dita,  Thophylact,  and  Euthymius  Zigahenus,  repeat  simi- 
lar ideas. 

Sec  130.     Latin  churches 

These  doctrines  gave  to  the  Latin  theologians,  more  co- 
pious matter  for  investigation.  Augustine,  who  was 
reverenced  as  a  Saint,  had  indeed  set  forth  a  determin- 
ate system  of  belief  respecting  sin  and  grace  ;  but,  with 
his  writings,,  those  of  John  Cassian  were  also  much 
10^ 


106  muenscher's  elements 

read ;  and  even  St.  Benedict  had  prescribed  the  reading  of 
Cassians's  Collations  in  the  monasteries.  Hence,  with- 
out being  sensible  of  it,  men  might  easily  swerve  from 
pure  Augustinism  ;  and  this  was  the  more  likely  to  take 
place,  because  more  moderate  sentiments  were  to  be 
found,  in  abundance,  in  the  writings  of  Augustine  him- 
self. Isidore  of  Seville  held  strictly  with  Augustine  ; — 
the  twofold  predestination  not  excepted.  So  also  did 
Beda  and  Alcuin.  But  when  Gottschalk  advanced  the 
same  twofold  predestination,  he  was  oppressed,  through 
the  influence  of  Rabanus  Maurus,  and  Hincmar  of 
Rheims.  As  Prudeniius  of  Troyes,  Servatus  Lupus, 
Ratramnus  and  Remigius,  appeared  in  defence  of  Gotts- 
chalk, and  as  the  treatise  of  John  Scotus  was  confuted  by 
Prudeniius  and  by  Florus ;  Hincmar  caused  the  four 
following  propositions,  to  be  established,  in  the  Council  of 
Chiersy  A.  D.  853.  I.  God  hath  predestinated  some 
men  unto  salvation  ;  but  not  others  to  perdition.  H.  We 
lost  free  will,  by  Adam  ;  and  recover  it  by  Christ.  III. 
God  wills  the  salvation  of  all  men.  IV.  Christ  died 
for  all  men.  But  a  great  part  of  the  French  churches 
deemed  these  propositions  inconsistent  with  the  pure — 
that  is,  with  the  Augustinian  doctrine  ;  and  the  decisions 
of  Chiersy,  were  contravened  by  others,  made  in  the 
councils  of  Valence  (A.  D.  855.)  and  Langres  (A.  D. 
859.)  Although  Hincmar  was  not  able  fully  to  over- 
come such  opposition,  yet  from  this  time  onward,  there 
was  less  hesitation,  to  soften  down  some  points  of  the 
Augustinian  system. 

Notices.  Yeterum  anctorum,  qui  saeculo  IX.  de  praedes- 
tinatione  et  gratia  scripserunt,  Opera  ;  cura  et  studio 
Guilberti  Mauguin.  Paris  1650.  II.  vol.  4to.  Ludov. 
Celloti,  Historia  Godeschaici  ;  Paris  1653.  Fol. 
The  most  noticeable  things  in  the  life  and  writings  of 
Hincmar,  Abp,  of  Rheims  ;  (in  German,)  by  WoJfg, 
Fried.  Gess ;  Getting.  1806.  p.  15—95. 

Sec.  131.     Doctrine  of  the  Scholastics  concerning  sin. 

The  scholastics  received  the  Augustinian  doctrine,  that, 

by  Adam's  transgression,  mortality,  sin,  and  guilt  passed 


\ 


1 


OP    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  107 

upon  his  posterity ;  but  they  introduced  various  new  ex- 
plications and  definitions.  Jiugustine  considered  heredi- 
tary sin,  to  be  sensuality  (concupiscentia).  Anselm,  the 
better  to  explain,  how  Christ  was  born  without  sin,  look- 
ed upon  it,  as  being  the  want  of  original  righteousness 
(defectus  justitiae  originalis) ;  which  is  imputed  to  all 
Adam's  posterity,  though  not  in  the  same  degree,  as  if 
they  had  sinned  personally.  Peter  Lombard  followed 
Augustine;  Bonaventura  Rnd  Thomas  Aquinas  endeR\  or  ei 
to  combine  the  ideas  of  both  ;  Duns  Scotus  held  with 
Anselm.  The  earlier  doctors,  including  Anselm  and 
PuUeyn,  adopted  Augustbe's  opinion,  that  unbaptized 
infants  are  damned,  on  account  of  hereditary  sin.  Peter 
Lombard  softened  this  doctrine,  by  discriminating  be- 
tween a  deprivation  of  the  vision  of  God,  and  punish- 
ments by  remorse  of  conscience  and  other  pains  ;  and  by 
holding  that,  only  the  former  impended  over  these  infants. 
This  solution  met  so  general  approbation,  that  Gregory 
of  Rimini  (d.  1378,)  by  adhering  to  the  harsher  opinion, 
incurred  the  appellation  of  the  Infant- lormenter.  To 
explain  the  manner,  in  which  hereditary  sin  is  propagated, 
concerning  which  Augustine  made  no  decision,  cost  the 
scholastics  much  trouble.  Some  supposed  a  propaga- 
tion of  the  soul  itself;  others,  the  contamination  of  the 
soul  by  the  corrupt  body ;  and  others,  as  Anselm  and 
Thomas,  an  imputation  of  ,sin,  to  all  participaters  in  hu-^ 
man  nature.  Finally,  the  Thomists  dillered  from  the 
Scotists  in  this,  that  the  former  adhered  more  strongly  to 
the  Augustinian  opinion,  of  a  complete,  incapacity  for 
goodness;  while  the  latter  conceded  to  men,  a  capacity 
for,  at  least  some  imperfect  goodness. 

Sec.  132.     Sinless  conception  of  Mary. 

The  fathers  had,  in  former  times,  exempted  Christ 
from  the  contamination  of  hereditary  sin ;  and  had  con- 
sidered this  as  the  reason  of  his  miraculous  conception ; 
but  the  idea  had  not  yet  occurred,  that  this  privilege  was 
also  extended,  to  Mary  the  mother  of  Jesus.     The  ever 


108 

increasing  veneration,  for  the  mother  of  God,  however, 
made  no  distinction  appear  too  great,  to  be  ascribed  to 
her.  Paschasius  Radbert  was,  perhaps,  the  first  that  ex- 
pressed the  thought,  that  Mary  w^as  conceived  without 
hereditary  sin.  In  the  twelfth  century,  this  opinion  was 
spread  in  France  ;  and  a  festival  devoted  to  it,  began  to 
be  observed.  Yet  both  the  opinion  and  the  festival,  were 
expressly  disapproved,  by  St,  Bernard;  and  rejected,  by 
Albert  the  Great,  and  Thomas  Aquinas ;  and  were  not 
received,  even  by  the  Franciscan  John  Bonaventur a,  who 
was  so  great  an  admirer  of  Mary.  But,  after  Duns  Sco- 
tus  came  forth  as  a  warm  defender  of  the  immaculate 
conception,  the  Franciscans  made  it  a  point  of  honor 
with  their  order,  to  maintain  this  opinion  against  the 
Dominicians;  and  when  John  de  Montesono,  (A.  D. 
1387,)  declared  it  an  error,  the  whole  university  of  Paris 
rose  up  against  him.  The  Council  of  Basle  declared 
in  favor  of  the  Franciscans.  The  Popes  ventured  not, 
to  decide  the  contest  between  these  two  powerful  orders ; 
yet  Sixtus  IV.  favored  the  Franciscans,  by  approving  a 
ritual  for  their  festival,  (A.  D.  1476,)  and  by  threatening 
with  excommunication,  (A.  D.  1483,)  whoever  should 
represent  belief  in  the  immaculate  conception,  to  be  a 
heresy. 

Notices.  Kistoire  du  Concilo  de  Trent,  par  Fra  Paolo 
Sarpl ;  traduite  par  P.  Fr.  de  Couraj/er,  T.  I.  p.  322 — 
325.  Fried.  IJlr.  Calixti  Historia  iinmaculatae  concep- 
tionis  beatae  virginis  ;  Helrnst.  1696.  4to. 

Sec.  133.  Doctrine  of  grace. 
Attempts  were  made,  to  fix  the  import  of  the  ambiguous 
term  grace,  by  discriminating  gratia  gratis  dans,  gratis  data, 
gratum  faciens,  praeveniens  s.  operans,  comitans  s.  co- 
operans.  But  the  chief  difficulty  was^  to  reconcile  the 
sentiments  expressed  by  Augustine,  with  the  idea  of  free- 
dom :  and  the  doctors  seemed  more  and  more  to  incline 
towards  Pelagianism ;  against  which,  Anselm  and  Ber- 
nard  of  Clairveaux  made  resistance.     Peter  Lombard 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  109 

held,  for  the  most  part,  to  the  Augustlnian  principles ;  but 
without  being  able,  to  solve  all  the  difficulties.  Thomas 
Aquinas  likewise  admitted,  that  withont  regenerating 
grace,  a  man  can  perform  nothing  well  pleasing  to  God  \ 
but,  that  being  awaked  by  preventing  grace,  a  man  can 
prepare  himself  for  regenerating  grace.  He  ascribed  to 
all  good  works,  so  far  as  they  are  the  product  of  grace, 
the  merit  of  congruity  (meritum  ex  congruo) ;  and  so 
far  as  the  man  himself  is  active,  the  merit  of  fitness 
(meritum  ex  condigno).  Duns  Scotus  on  the  contrary, 
believed,  that  without  grace,  a  man  may  acquire  the 
merit  of  fitness,  but  not  that  of  congruity ;  and  that 
he  can,  in  some  measure,  make  himself  fit  to  become 
a  subject  of  grace ;  while  yet,  it  is  impossible  to  re- 
move from  God  the  charge  of  partiality.  Peter  Abe- 
lard  asserted,  in  very  strong  terms,  that  the  heathen 
are  capable  of  virtue,  and  of  salvation ;  but  people  did 
not  venture  to  follow  him :  and  at  most  they  only  ad- 
mitted, that  Gregory  the  Great,  had  rescued  the  Em- 
peror Trajan  from  hell,  by  his  intercessions.  Justifi- 
cation (justificatio)  was  considered,  as  an  effect  of 
grace,  and  was  viewed,  as  the  infusing  of  righteous- 
ness, with  which  the  forgiveness  of  sin  was  connected. 
But  of  the  fact,  whether  a  person  has  grace  or  not, 
according  to  Thomas  Aquinas,  there  may  be  probable, 
but  not  certain  evidence. 

Sec.  134.  Predestination. 
In  substance,  the  earlier  Scholastics,  as  Peter  Lom^ 
hard  and  Thomas,  adhered  to  the  Augustinian  doc- 
trine of  unconditional  decrees ;  for  they  held,  that  the 
ground  for  reprobation,  was  the  sinfulness  of  men ;  but 
that  the  only  ground  of  election,  is  the  good  pleasure  of 
God.  Yet  John  Bonaventura  asserted,  that  the  suscep- 
tibility or  unsusceptibility  of  men,  was  a  reason,  though 
not  the  sole  basis  of  the  divine  decrees.  This  idea  was 
eagerly  seized  by  the  later  Scholastics,  and  was  extended 
still  farther.  The  Scotists  referred  election  directly  to  the 
foreknowledge  of  God ;  and  ttie  Thomists  also,  sought  to 


no  muenscher's  elements 

introduce  some  palliations.  Merc  displeasure,  at  seeing 
almost  the  whole  world  verging  towards  the  errors  of 
Pelagius,  induced  Thomas  oiBradwardina  (d.  1349),  to 
defend  unconditional  election,  in  its  strictest  form;  and 
John  ^zcM^  held  similar  views.  " 

Notices.      Thomae  Bradwardini  (\e  eausa  Dei,  contra  Pela- 
gium  ;  studio  Henr,  Savilii  ;  Lend.  1618.  Fol. 

Joan,  Wiclefi  Dialogorum  Libri  IV.  Francf.  et  Lips.  1753. 
4to. 

Sec.  135.     Redemption  by  Christ. 

John  Damascenus  borrowed  from  Gregory  JVizianzen, 
a  renunciation  of  the  opinion,  that  Christ  paid  his  life  a 
ransom  to  the  devil ;  and  in  this,  Robert  Pulleyn  agreed 
with  him.  Jlnselm  of  Canterbury,  in  his  work.  Cur  Deus 
homo,  endeavored  to  explain  more  fully,  the  object  of 
redemption  ;  and  he  represented  the  sufferings  of  Christ, 
as  a  satisfaction  offered  to  divine  justice,  for  the  sins  of 
men;  and  which  no  one,  unless  he  were  both  God  and 
man,  could  have  accomplished.  Abelard  doubted,  whe- 
ther mankind  w^ere  under  the  power  of  the  devil,  from 
which  they  needed  to  be  rescued  ;  but  he  was  strenuously 
opposed  by  St.  Bernard.  Peter  Lombard  made  no  use 
of  Anselm's  theory,  but  stopped  short  with  the  position, 
that  men  are  delivered  from  sin  and  the  dominion  of  the 
devil,  and  are  brought  to  love  God,  by  Jesus  Christ. 
Albert  the  Great,  and  Alexander  Hales,  made  use  of  An- 
selm's ideas;  but  Thomas  Aquinas  discussed  the  sub- 
ject the  most  fully.  He  is  the  first,  that  treated  exten- 
sively of  the  high-priestly  office  of  Christ.  He  showed, 
that  the  death  of  Christ,  is  to  be  considered  as  a  satisfac- 
tion and  an  offering;  and  that  its  efficacy,  is  not  only 
adequate,  but  more  than  adequate,  (superabundans  meri- 
tum,)  to  redeem  men.  from  the  guilt  and  punishment  of 
sin,  and  from  the  power  of  the  devil,  and  to  open  to  them 
the  gates  of  heaven.  Duns  Scotus  contradicted  Thomas ; 
and  would  not  allow  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  to  be  a  full 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  Ill 

equivalent  for  the  sins  of  men,  though  he  admitted,  that 
God  accepted  them  as  equivalent. 

Sec.  136.  Of  faith  and  good  works. 
Faith  and  good  works  were  generally  considered,  as  the 
means  of  obtaining  a  participation  in  divine  blessings. 
John  Damascenus  discriminates  two  kinds  of  faith,  the 
reception  of  the  christian  doctrines,  and  a  firm  reliance  on 
the  promises  of  God  ;  of  which,  the  former  depends  on 
ourselves,  and  the  latter  is  the  gift  of  God.  The  Scho- 
lastics adopted  the  ideas  of  Augustine.  They  understood 
by  faith,  approbation  given  to  the  divine  doctrines ;  con- 
sidered it  as  a  gift  of  God ;  and  brought  forward  many 
divisions  of  it  (Fides  quae  et  qua  creditur,  informis  et 
formata,  explicita,  implicita).  Value  was  ascribed  to 
faith,  only  when  connected  with  love  and  hope,  and  fol- 
lowed by  good  works ;  nay,  it  was  itself  regarded  as  the 
first  of  virtues.  Good  works  originate,  partly  from  grace, 
and  partly  from  free-will,  when  it  is  made  sound  by 
grace :  and  such  works  are  meritorious.  Lombard  pro- 
nounced all  works,  done  without  faith,  to  be  bad.  The 
hypothesis,  formed  in  the  preceding  period,  respecting 
w^orks  of  supererogation,  was  held  and  enlar2;ed  in  this. 
Thomas  describes  unbelief,  as  the  greatest  of  all  sins  :  and 
he  held  it  to  be  right,  to  compel  heretics  and  apostates, 
though  not  also  Jews  and  Pagans,  to  believe.  In  treating 
on  these  subjects,  the  Scholastic  doctors  interwove  exten- 
sively, statements  in  moral  or  practical  theology. 

Sec  137.     Adoration  of  saints  and  of  Mary. 

Praying  to  the  saints,  had  become  customary,  in  the  pre- 
ceding period  ;  and  the  mother  of  God,  was  looked  upon 
as  the  queen  of  heaven  ;  yet  it  was  deemed  necessary,  to 
guard  against  the  danger  and  the  reproach  of  idolairv. 
Hence,  the  distinction  of  worship,  among  the  Greeks,  into 
Xarpsia  and  «7rpo(j'xuvy)tfig,  (Mansi^  XII.  377.  Theodorus 
tStud.  0pp.  p.  521,)  and  among  the  Latins,  into  latriay 
iduliay  and  hyperdulia  {Lombard  III.  9.    Thorn.  P.  IIL 


112 

qu.  25).  The  worship  of  images,  which  commenced  at  an 
earlier  period,  produced  in  the  eighth  century,  most  violent 
contests.  It  was  zealously  defended  by  John  Damasce- 
nus;  forbidden  by  a  Council,  A.  D.  754 ;  again  estab- 
lished by  another,  at  Nice  (A.  D.  787) ;  disapproved  by 
Charlemagne^  and  the  French  Bishops ;  yet  taken  under 
protection  by  the  Romish  Popes  ;  and  at  last,  it  became  fully 
established  in  the  Greek  and  Romish  churches.  Reli- 
gious veneration  was  also  paid  to  the  cross,  and  to  relics ; 
and  Thomas  assigns  to  the  former  even  latria. 

Notice.  Jo.  Dallaei  adversus  Latinorum  de  cultus  religiosi 
objecto  traditionem  disputntio  ;  Geiiev.  1665.  4to.  Nat, 
Alexandri  Hist.  Eccles.  N.  T.  Secul.  V.  Diss.  XXV. 

Sec.  138.  The  Sacraments  in  general. 
The  definitions  given  of  the  sacraments,  were  diverse 
and  ambiguous.  Among  the  Greeks,  John  Damascenus 
makes  mention  of  only  baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper ; 
and  Thtodorus  Studita,  after  the  example  of  the  pseudo- 
Dionysius  Areopagita,  enumerates  six  sacraments.  The 
Latins  took  Augustine's  idea  for  their  first  principle: 
Sacramentum  est  signura  rei  sacrae,  s.  invisibilis  gratiae 
visibilis  forma  (a  sacrament  is  a  sign  of  a  holy  thing,  or, 
the  visible  form  of  invisible  grace).  Yet  respecting 
the  number  of  the  sacraments,  they  were  not  agreed.' 
Rabanus  Maurus,  and  Paschasius  Radhert,  name 
four  of  them;  St,  Bernard  adds  the  washing  of 
feet ;  Hugo  of  St,  Victor^  includes  among  them  holy 
water,  and  the  consecration  of  clocks,  &;c.  Peter 
Damian,  (0pp.  T.  II.  p.  167 — 169,)  even  makes  twelve 
sacraments  of  the  church.  Otto  Bishop  of  Bamberg, 
was  the  first  that,  A.  D.  1124,  enumerated  seven  sacra- 
ments; baptism,  confirmation,  anointing  the  sick,  the 
Lord's  supper,  penance,  marriage,  and  ordination;  and 
through  the  influence  of  Peter  Lombard,  and  of  Oratian, 
who  introduced  the  same  sentiments  into  his  Decretum, 
the  admission  of  this  number  became  general  among  the 
doctors,  and  received  the  approbation  of  Pope  Eugene  IV. 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  113 

at  the  Council  of  Florence,  A.  D.  1439.  (Mansi  Concil. 
T.  XXXI.  p.    1054.)     Various  reasons  likewise  were 
assigned,  why  just  this  number  of  sacraments  should  be 
admitted :  and  yet  it  should  be  noticed,  that  equal  sanc- 
tity, and  equal  importance,  were,  by  no  means,  attributed 
to  all  the  sacraments.     According  to  Thomas  Aquinas, 
who  is  the  most  full  on  the  nature  of  them,  a  sacrament 
is  an  institution,  in  which  God,  by  visible  signs,  imparts 
his  invisible  grace,  and  applies  the  effects  of  Christ's  mer- 
its to  men.     For,  ahhough  God  is  not  confined  to  the 
use  of  such  means,  yet  it  is  necessary  for  men,  to  be  re- 
covered by  means  of  sensible   objects,  since  it  w^as  by- 
such  objects  they  were  led  to  the  apostacy.     Sacraments 
were  not  necessary,  in  the  state  of  innocence,  but  only 
since  the  fall  of  man.     All  the  sacraments  of  the  New 
Testament,  were  instituted  by  Christ,  as  God  ;    and  they 
derive  their  efficacy  from  the  sufferings  of  Christ :  they 
produce  the  graces,    which  the  sacraments  of  the  Old 
Testament  only  prefigured.     The  efficacy  of  a  sacrament, 
does  not  depend  on  the  faith  and  the  uprightness  of  the 
clergymen,  w^ho  administer  it;  and  yet  it  is  necessary,  that 
he  should  have  the  intention  of  administering  that  sacra- 
ment.    From  some  of  the  positions  of  Thomas,  other 
doctors  departed.     Alexander  Hales  believed,  that  only 
two  sacraments   were  instituted  by  Christ  himself,   the 
others  being  introduced  by  his  ministers ;  and  in  particu- 
lar, that  the  sacrament  of  confirmation,  was  not  instituted 
by  either  Christ  or  the   apostles,  but  by  the  Council  of 
Meaux.     Hugo  of  St,  Victor,  Scotus,  and  Occam,  dif- 
fered from  Thomas,   in  their  explanation  of  the  sacra- 
ments.    The  Thomists  also  contended  with  the  Scotists, 
whether  the  gracious  operative  power  (virtus  instrumen- 
tahs  et  effectiva)  were  in  the  sacraments  themselves,  by 
divine  establishment ;  or  whether  it  rested  on  the  promise 
of  God,  that  he  would  impart  his  grace,  so  often  as  a  sa- 
crament was  administered.     The  opinion  of  Thomas, 
that  the  sacraments  of  the  Old  Testament,  only  prefigur- 
ed grace,  but  did  not  impart  it,  was  rejected  by  John 

11 


114  muenscher's  elements 

Bonaventura  and  Scotus;  and  previously,  Beda  had 
taught  the  contrary  ;  but  it  was  established,  by  Eugene 
IV,  at  the  Council  o( Florence,  A.D.  1439.  {MansiCou- 
cil.  XXXI.  p.  1054.)  The  Scholastics,  moreover,  be- 
lieved in  a  two-fold  operation  of  the  sacraments,  ex  opere 
operantis,  et  ex  opere  operato.  The  dissenting  parties 
from  the  general  church,  that  arose  during  this  period, 
either  attached  little  value  to  the  sacraments,  as  the 
Brethren  of  the  jree  Spirit ;  or  they  rejected  some  of  *■ 
them*  or  at  least,  the  views  the  church  entertained  of  ' 
them,  as  the  Waldensians,  the  Wicklijiites  and  the 
Hussites. 

Sec.  139.  Of  Baptism. 
The  doctrine  of  baptism,  was  perfected  by  St.  The- 
mas,  according  to  the  principles  of  Peter  Lombard.  The 
effect  of  baptism  is  (justificatio)  justification.  A  person 
obtains,  by  baptism,  forgiveness  of  the  debt  of  sin,  and 
sanctification.  An  infant  receives  remission  of  the  guilt 
of  hereditary  sin ;  the  adult,  forgiveness  not  only  of  he- 
reditary sin,  but  also  of  his  preceding  actual  sins.  Al- 
though there  was  difference  of  opinion,  whether,  in  bap- 
tism, only  forgiveness  of  sin,  or  also  the  grace  that  sanc- 
tifies, were  imparted  ;  yet  Clement  V.  at  the  Council  of 
Vienne,  A.D.  1311,  declared  the  latter  supposition  most 
probable.  (Mansi,  Concil.  XXV.  411.)  Yet  the  in- 
nate evil  lust,  (concupiscentia,)  remained,  after  baptism  ; 
though  not  as  guilt  or  sin,  but  only  an  incentive  to 
sin;  against  which  a  person  has  occasion  for  conflict. 
When  a  person  receives  merely  the  semblance  of  bap- 
tism, or  baptism  only  in  appearance,  this  will  have 
no  beneficial  effects.  Every  baptism  is  valid,  which 
is  performed  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity;  and,  as 
it  impresses  an  indelible  character,  it  must  not  be  repeated. 
When  any  person  desires  to  be  baptized,  but  is  prevented, 
without  his  fault,  it  is  as  good  as  if  he  were  actually  bap- 
tized ;  and  the  Spirit  of  God  sanctifies  him  : — so  taught 
Lombard  and  Thomas  and  St.  Bernard,  in  opposition  to 
some  other  doctors,  as  e.  g.  Rabanus  Maurus.    The 


OF  DOGMATIC  HISTORY.  llS 

right  to  baptize,  belongs  to  the  priests;  yet  in  cases  of 
necessity,  it  is  lawful  for  the  deacons,  and  even  for  the 
laity,  to  baptize.  Baptism  produces  a  spiritual  rela- 
tion;  and  it  is  to  be  preceded  by  an  exorcism,  and 
in  the  case  of  adults,  by  catechetical  instruction.  The 
faith  which  is  lacking  in  infant  baptism,  is  supplied  by 
the  faith  of  the  sponsors,  or  of  the  church.  Immer- 
sion in  the  water,  was  customary,  until  the  thirteenth 
century ;  when  it  was  exchanged  by  the  Latins  for 
sprinkling,  though  still  retained  by  the  Greeks.  The 
church  moreover,  had  to  contend  with  the  Cathari,  and 
particularly  the  Petrobrusians,  who  denied  the  efficacy 
of  baptism  generally,  and  rejected  infant  baptism  ;  these, 
it  was,  Moneta  (adv.  Cath.  et  Waldenses,  p.  277.)  under- 
took to  confute. 

Notice,  Petitorium  exhortatorium  pro  resolutiono  super 
grossis  quihusdam  dubietatibus — circa  Sacrainentum — 
baptissni  ; — per  fra(reir)  Wilhelmvm  de  Sfvftgardia  (Gu- 
liel.  Hol(leriirri)  ;  Tul)infr.  1594.  See,  New  Getting, 
historical  Maizazine  (in  German)  by  Meiners  and  Spittler^ 
veil.  III.  p.  228—272. 

Sec.  140.  Of  confirmation. 
The  Latin  church  gradually  adopted  the  principle,  de- 
rived from  the  Greek  church,  that  the  anointing  of  bap- 
tized persons  with  consecrated  oil,  w^as  to  be  performed 
only  by  a  bishop.  A  consequence  of  this  was,  that  this 
transaction  was  separated  from  baptism.  Lombard  and 
Thomas  declared  themselves  at  full  length,  on  this  sub- 
ject. By  this  unction,  they  supposed  that,  power  was 
imparted  to  the  spiritual  life,  which  commenced  at  bap- 
tism, to  increase  its  strength,  and  to  contend  against 
spiritual  foes  ;  and  that  the  person  became  a  partaker  of 
the  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  This  sacrament  imparts 
an  indelible  character;  and  therefore  must  not  be  re- 
peated :  nor  can  any  baptized  person  refuse  it.  And 
finally,  there  must  be  present  at  it,  some  witnesses,  by 
whom  the  confirmed  child  is  to  be  brought  up.     Nearly  all 


116  muenscher's  elements 

these  principles  were  stated  by  Eugene  IV.  But  John 
WicklifAouhiQdi^  whether  confirmation  had  an  adequate 
foundation. 

Notices,  Jo,  DallaeU  de  duobus  Latinorum  ex  Unctione 
Sacramentis,  Confirmatione  et  exlrema  unctione,  Disser- 
tatio  ;  Genev.  1669.  £;m.?c?.  de  cultibus  reli^iosis  Lati- 
norum, Libri  IX.  Genev.  1671.  Lib.  II.  p.  94.  Conip. 
Natal.  Alexandri  Historiaecles.  N.  T.  saecul.  II.  Dis.  X. 

Sec.  141.  Of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
The  Lord's  supper  was  looked  upon,  as  spiritual  nour- 
ishment for  the  soul ;  and  as  that  which  produced  the  unity 
of  the  church.  On  the  use  of  leavened  bread,  from  the 
eleventh  century,  the  Latins  had  controversy  with  the 
Greeks ;  but  at  length,  they  brought  the  Greeks  to  hold 
with  them.  The  hosts  were  introduced ;  and  mixing 
the  wine  with  water,  was  considered  as  necessary,  yet 
not  absolutely  essential.  Eating  the  Lord's  supper,  is 
not  so  indispensable,  as  baptism  ;  yet  no  christian  should 
neglect  it ;  and  though  Christ  instituted  it  after  a  supper, 
yet  it  is  proper  for  christians  to  receive  it,  in  the  morning, 
and  fasting.  [The  ancient  custom  of  presenting  the 
Lord's  supper  to  children,  was  laid  aside  in  the  western 
churches,  after  the  twelfth  century. 

Notices.     Godofr.  Hermanni  Historia  concertationum  de 

pane  azymo  et  fermentato  in  coena  Domini ;  Lips.  1737. 

8vo. 
Jac.  Slrmondi  Diss,   de  azymo  ;  0pp.  T.   IV.  p.  513.  ed. 

Paris,  p.  35L  ed.  Venice. 
Mich,  le  Quicn,  de  azyniis  Diss. — the  sixth  of  his  Diss.  Da- 

masceniea  ;  in  0pp.  Damasceni.  Tom.  L  p.  LXXI. 
Petri  Zornii  li\siorh  eucharistiae  infantum  ;  Berol.   1736. 

8vo. 

Sec,  142.     Transmutation  in  the  Lords  Supper, 
Historians.     In  addition  to  the  works  mentioned  Sec.  102> 

see  the  follovvino-. 
Simplicii  Verini  (Claudii  Salmasii)  de  transubstantiatione 

Liber;  ed.  2.  Lugd.  Bat.  1660. 


OF   DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  lit 

Historia  transubstantititionis  papalis ; — excudi  permisit  Joan- 
ne* (Cosiri)  Ep.  Dunelmens.  Lond.    1675.  Brem.    1678. 

8vo.  Jo.  G.  Walchii,  Historia  transubst.  pontificiae  ;  in 
his  Miscell.  sacra  ;  Amslel.    1744. 

Insigniores  Romanae  ecclesiae  varialiones  circa  Eucha- 
ristiam  ;  in  S.  Deyling,  Observatt.  sacris  et  miscellaneis; 
P.  IV.  p.  178. 

Novitas  errorum  Pontificiorum  circa  Eucharistiam  ;  ibid. 
P.  V.  p.  246. 

Natalis  Alexandria  de  reali  praesentia  corporis  et  sanguinis 
Christi  in  Eucharistia,  el  de  transubstanliatione  panis  et 
vini  in  corpus  "et  sanguinenn  Christi  :  Diss.  XII.  ad  Sae- 
cul.   XI.  et  Xfl.   Histor.  ecclesia  N.  T. 

Historia  concert ationis  Graecornm  Latinorumqiie  de  tran- 
substantiatione  in  sacro  Eucharistiae  sacramento  ;  aucto- 
re  i.  Uad,  KiesUng.  Lips.   1764.  8vo. 

In  the  Greek  church,  John  Damascenus  collected  the 
strongest  passages  of  the  fathers,  concerning  the  transfor- 
mation ;  and  also  denied,  that  after  consecration  the  supper 
was  to  be  called  a  sign  or  representation  of  the  body  of 
Christ ;  and  this  principle  was  maintained,  in  the  second 
Nicene  Council,  A.  D,  787,  in  opposition  to  the  decision 
of  the  Council  of  Constantinople^  of  the  year  754.  The 
later  Greeks,  as  Theophylact  and  Euthymius  ZigabenuSy 
follow  John  Damascenus ;  but  though  they  speak  of 
the  transformation,  they  do  not  agree  perfectly  with 
the  doctrine  of  the  Romish  church.  The  western  doc- 
tors expressed  themselves  differently,  and  ambiguously ; 
and  yet,  in  the  days  of  Charlemagne,  it  was  admitted, 
that,  the  bread  was  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  mere  represen- 
tadve  of  the  body  of  Christ.  In  the  ninth  century,  Pcw- 
chasius  Radbert  stated  the  transiTiutation  of  the  bread  in- 
to the  body  of  Christ,  and  of  the  wine  into  his  blood,  with  a 
clearness  and  precision,  never  before  used  on  the  subject; 
and  he  insisted,  that  every  orthodox  man  must  so  believe. 
He  was  contradicted  by  Raban  Mauras,  Ratram,  and 
John  Scotus  ;  yet  he  also  found  adherents. 

Notices,     Paschasii  Radberti,  de  corpore  et  sanguine  Do- 
mini, Liber;  in  his  0pp.  (cura  lac.  Sirmondi;)  Lutet. 
11* 


118  muenscheb's  elements 

1618  &c.  and  in  Martene  et  Durandi  Collect,  ampliss, 
veter.  monumentorum  ;  T.  IX.  p.  373, 
Ratramni    (Bertram)    de   corpore    et   sanguine   Domini  ; 
a  Quevilly  1673.  8vo.    Amstel.   1718.   12mo. 

Sec.  143.  Contest  with  Berengarius. 
The  contest  concerning  the  Eucharist,  occasioned  by 
Paschasius  Radbert,  remained  indeed  undeternnined,  but 
Radbert's  views  continued  to  spread  in  the  church.  They 
were  advocated  by  the  famous  Gerhert ;  who  taxed  the 
opposers  of  them,  with  odious  consequences :  and  mira- 
cles also  were  resorted  to,  in  defence  of  them.  Thus, 
after  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  it  had  come  to 
this,  that  a  man  was  accounted  an  errorist,  who  deviated 
from  those  views.  Berengarius  of  Tours  was  accused 
by  Lanfrank,  because,  in  conformity  with  John  Scotus, 
he  denied  the  transmutation  of  the  bread  ;  while  yet  he 
admitted  the  real  presence  of  Christ's  body  in  the  supper. 
Pope  Leo  XI.  in  the  Council  of  T^ercelli,  A.  D.  1050, 
condemned  Berengarius,  and  the  writings  of  Scotus,  as 
heretical ;  and  JVicolaus  II.  at  the  Council  of  Rome, 
A.  D.  1059,  pressed  Berengarius  to  a  recantation,  and 
to  assent  to  a  formula  of  faith.  Yet,  even  after  a  se- 
cond recantation,  to  which  he  was  sentenced  by  Gregory 
VII.  Berengarius  returned  back  to  his  former  opinions. 
It  was  now  become  manifest,  that  the  church  would 
tolerate  no  other  sentiment,  than  that  of  the  transforma- 
tion of  the  bread. 

Notices.  Gerherti  de  corpore  et  sanguine  Domini  Liber  : 
in  Bern.  Fez.  Thesau.  Anecdot.  Nov.  T.  I.  P.  II.  Christ. 
Matth.  Pfoff,  Tractatus  de  stercoranistis  medii  aevi ; 
Tubing.  1750.  4to.  Lanfranci,  de  corpore  et  sang. 
Domini  Liber  ;  in  his  Opp.  ed.  L.  d'Archery  ;  Lutet. 
1618.  Guitmundi  de  corp.  et  sang.  Cliristi  veritate  in 
Eucharistia  Lib.  III.  in  Biblioth.  max.  Patr.  T.  XVIII. 
Adelmanni,  de  veritate  corp.  et  sang.  Domini,  ad  Beren- 
gar.  Ep.  ed.  C.  A.  Schmid;  Brun.  1770.  8vo.  Be- 
rengarius, or  Announcement  of  an  important  work  by 
him;  by  6r.  E.  Lessing ;  (Germ.)  1770.     Berengarius 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  119 

Turonensis ;  by   C.   F.  Stdudlin,  (Germ.)  in   his   and 

Tzschirner'' s  Archiv.   Vol.    II.  P.  1.     Jo.  Mahillon,  de 

multiplici   Berengarii  tlamnatione;  in  J.  Fa^^,  Biblioth. 
haeresiol.  T.  I. 

Sec.  144.  Scholastics  and  Canonists, 
In  this  state  came  the  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist  into 
the  hands  of  the  scholastics,  to  whom  it  afforded  abun- 
dant matter  for  examination.  Yet  the  form  of  the 
doctrine,  was  not  yet  unchangeably  fixed.  Hildebert  of 
Tours,  taught  distinctly,  the  transmutation  of  the  bread  ; 
and  he  used  for  it  the  new  term  (transubstantiatio)  tran- 
substantiation.  Rupert  oi  Duys,  on  the  contrary^  taught 
that,  the  substance  of  the  bread  and  wine  were  not  de- 
stroyed, nor  changed.  Lombard  acknowledges,  that  the 
substance  of  the  bread  and  wine  are  changed,  at  the 
consecration,  by  the  words  of  Christ,  into  the  substance 
of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ;  and  that  in  each  ele- 
ment, there  is  a  whole  Christ.  But  he  knew  not  how  to 
extricate  himself  from  the  various  difficulties,  which  pres- 
sed themselves  upon  him.  His  contemporary  Gratian, 
introduced  the  idea  of  transubstantiation  into  his  code  of 
Canon  Law ;  and  thus  procured  it  higher  respect,  and 
a  more  extensive  diffusion.  At  last.  Innocent  III.  upon 
occasion  of  the  opposition  to  it  by  the  Waldensians  and 
other  sects,  solemnly  established  this  doctrine,  in  the  La- 
teran  Council  of  A.  D.  1215. 

Notice,  Concil.  Lateran.  Cap.  I.  Una  est  fidelinm  uni- 
versalis ecclesia,  extra  quam  nuUus  omnino  salvatur. 
In  qua  idem  ipse  sacerdos  et  sacrificium  Jesus  Christus, 
cujus  corpus  et  sanguis  in  sacramento  altaris  sub  specie- 
bus  panis  et  vini  veraciter  continentur ;  transubstan- 
tiatis,  pane  in  corpus,  et  vino  in  sanguinem  potestate  di- 
vina,  ut  ad  perficiendum  mysterium  unitatis  accipiamus 
ipsi  de  sue  quod  accepit  ipse  de  nostro.  Et  hoc  utique 
sacramentum  nemo  potest  conficere  nisi  sacerdos,  qui  fu- 
^^  erit  rite  ordinatus  secundum  claves  ecclesiae,  quas 
m^^     ipse  concessit  Apostolis  et  eorum  successoribus  Jesus 


120  muenscher's  elements 


Sec.  145.     Further  determinations. 

The  now  received  doctrine  of  the  church,  was  further 
developed  by  Alexander  Hales,  Albert  the  Great,  and 
especially,  by  Thomas  Aquinas,  It  was  determined, 
that,  through  the  power  of  God,  only  the  external  acci- 
dents of  bread  remained,  without  the  substance ;  and 
that  merely  the  outward  form  was  broken,  while  the 
body  of  Christ  remained  entire.  The  question  was 
raised,  whedier  a  beast,  that  should  devour  the  host, 
would  receive  the  body  of  Christ.  Thomas  affirmed, 
and  Bonaventura  denied.  The  festival  of  the  Holy 
Body,  was  regulated  by  Urban  IV,  A.  D.  1264,  on 
occasion  of  a  revelation  to  Juliana  of  Liittich,  as  a  me- 
morial of  transubstantiation  ;  and  was  finally  established, 
by  Clement  V.  A.  D.  1311.  Notwithstanding  the  vari- 
ous confirmations  of  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation, 
John  of  Paris  (d.  1306)  ventured  to  teach,  that  the  re- 
ception of  this  doctrine,  was  not  absolutely  necessary ; 
and  that  the  real  presence  of  Christ,  might  be  explained 
to  be  an  impanation.  According  to  the  views  of  Will- 
iam  Occam,  transubstantiation  is  not  expressly  taught  in 
the  holy  scrptures;  but  it  was  supposed  that,  God  revealed 
it  to  the  holy  fathers,  or  that  it  became  manifest  to  them, 
while  carefully  studying  passages  of  the  bible.  John 
Wicklif  rejected  transubstantiation ;  but  John  Huss  ad- 
mitted it. 

Notices,  Joannis  Parisiensis  determinatio  de  modo  exis- 
tendi  corporis  Christi  in  Sacramento  altaris  ;  (ed.  Petr, 
Alix,)  Lend.  1686.  8vo. 

Mus  extenteratus ;  hoc  est,  Tractatus  valde  magistralis 
super  quaestione  quadam  theologicali,  spinosa  et  multum 
subtili,  ut  intus.  Scriptus — per  fratrern  Wilhelmum  de 
Stuttgardia,  ordinis  Minorum  (Gulielm.  Holderum) ; 
Tubing.  1593.  4to. — See  New  Getting.  Magazin,  by 
Miners  and   Splttler,  vol.  II.  p.  716—734. 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  Wi 


Sec.  146.  Consequences  of  the  doctrine  of  transulstan- 
tiation. 
The  belief  that,  by  the  transmutation,  Christ  was 
present  in  the  Eucharist,  gave  rise  to  the  custom  of  wor- 
shipping the  elevated  host,  by  prostration ;  concerning 
which,  Honorius  HI.  published  an  ordinance  A.  D.  1217. 
It  being  admitted  that,  entire  Christ  was  contained  under 
each  form,  that  of  bread  as  well  as  that  of  wine,  would 
naturally  lead  to  the  thought  that,  either  of  them  was  suf- 
ficient, without  the  other.  It  therefore  became  customa- 
ry, after  the  host  had  been  for  some  time  immersed  in 
the  wine,  to  withhold  the  cup  from  the  laity.  This  prac- 
tice, which  was  approved  by  Robert  Pulleyn,  and  de- 
fended by  Alexander  Hales,  Bonaventura  and  Thomas 
Aquinas,  in  a  litde  time  obtained  general  currency  in 
the  church.  And  when  James  of  Misa,  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  restored  the  use  of  the  cup,  at  Prague,  the 
Council  of  Constance,  A.  D.  1415,  rejected  this  innova- 
tion ;  and  ordained,  that  the  priests  should  receive  the 
Eucharist  under  both  forms,  but  the  laity  under  one 
form  only.  The  Council  of  Basle,  however,  found  it 
necessary,  A.  D.  1436,  to  allow  the  restless  Hussites 
the  use  of  the  cup ;  yet  with  this  explanation,  that  the 
church  has  power,  to  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  the 
Eucharist  shall  be  received. 

Notices.  De  Adoratione  Eucharistiae  Libri  11 ;  auctore 
Petro  Boileau]  Lutet.  1686.  8vo. 

Joan.  Guil.  de  Lith,  Disquisitio  theologica  et  histor.  de  ado- 
ratione panis  consecrati  et  interdictione  calicis  in  Eucha- 
ristia  ;  edita  a  Joan.  Car,  de  Lifh;  Suobaci  1753.  Bvo. 

Jo.  And.  Schmidj  Comrnentt.  de  fatis  calicis  eucharistici  in 
ecclesia  Romana  ;  Helmst.  1708. 

Spittler's  History  of  the  eucharistical  cup ;  (in  German,) 
Lemgo  1780.  8vo. 

Sec.  147.     Of  the  Mass. 
The  hypothesis,  that  the  Eucharist  is  a  sacrifice,  by- 


122      ^  muenscher's  elements 

which  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  is  renewed,  and  that  it  im- 
parts peculiar  efficacy  to  the  prayers,  that  are  offered  in 
connexion  with  it ;  came  down  from  the  preceding  peri- 
od. The  Romish  Canon  of  the  Mass,  though  differently 
modified^  was  introduced  into  various  Latin  churches. 
Silent  Masses,  and  Masses  for  the  dead,  began  to  appear, 
at  the  commencement  of  this  period ;  and  although  they 
at  first  met  with  opposition,  they  became  very  general ; 
being  favored  especially  by  the  increasing  prevalence  of 
a  belief  in  Purgatory.  Thus  was  formed  the  belief, 
that  the  Mass  averts  evils  of  all  sorts,  and  procures  vari- 
ous divine  blessings;  and  that  the  Eucharist,  whether 
participated  by  the  person,  or  not,  is  efficacious  in  his 
behalf:  and  these  Masses  became  a  prolific  source  of 
income  to  the  clergy.  The  scholastic  doctors,  as  Lom- 
bard and  Thomas^  touch  upon  this  subject  but  slightly. 
Innocent  III.  established  the  Canon  of  the  Mass,  in  the 
Lateran  Council  of  A.  D.  1215.  All  those  sects,  which 
opposed  the  prevailing  church,  and  particularly  John 
Wicklif,  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  Mass. 

Notices,  Ge,  Calixti  Diss,  de  pontificio  Missae  sacraficio ; 
Francf.  1644. — Ejusd,  Exercitalio  de  Missis  solitariis ; 
Helmst.  1647. 

J.  Fr.  Buddei  Diss,  de  oriofine  missae  pontificiae; — in  his 
Miscell.  Sacra.  Jenae  1727.     T.  I.  p.  1. 

Sec.  148.  The  sacrament  of  Penance. 
The  doctrine  concerning  Penance,  grew  out  of  the 
ideas  of  the  ancient  church,  and  especially  oi  Augustine, 
respecting  sins  before  and  after  baptism  ;  and  out  of  the 
modifications,  which  the  original  church  discipline  had 
undergone.  Hildebert  of  Tours,  (0pp.  p.  324,)  men- 
tions three  parts  of  penance ;  namely,  contrition  of  heart, 
confession  with  the  lips,  and  satisfaction  in  deeds;  all 
which  have  been  traced  back  to  certain  passages  in  the 
writings  of  John  Chrysostom  and  Augustine,  These 
penitential  acts,  prescribed  appropriately  for  the  excom- 
municated, were  transferred,  by  the  Scholastics  and  the 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY*  123 

Canonists,  to  sinning  christians  in  general.  They  con- 
sidered Penance  as  the  medium,  by  which  the  remission 
of  the  guilt  and  eternal  punishment — but  not  the  tempo- 
ral punishment — of  sins  committed  subsequently  to  bap- 
tism, was  to  be  sought  for  and  obtained;  and  this  idea 
gave  both  the  matter  and  the  form  of  the  sacrament.  It 
was  required,  that  persons  should  confess  their  sins,  not 
only  to  God,  but  also  to  a  priest ;  and  that  they  should 
make  the  satisfaction,  prescribed  to  them;  in  which  a 
distinction  was  made,  between  attrition  and  contrition. 
Satisfaction  was  made  to  consist,  in  fasting,  prayer,  and 
alms ;  to  which  pilgrimages  and  flagellations  were  sub- 
joined. The  absolution  of  the  priest,  was  considered  as 
a  judicial  act.  Gratian  and  Lombard^  however,  leave 
it  undecided,  whether  confession  to  a  priest  were  neces- 
sary. Innocent  the  Thirds  procured  for  this  doctrine  a 
full  establishment  in  the  church. 

Notices.  Concil.  Lateran  ;  Canon  XXI.  Omnis  utrius- 
que  sexus  fidelis,  postqnam  ad  annos  discretionis  perve- 
nerit,  omnia  sua  solus  peccata  confiteator  fideliter,  saltern 
somel  in  anno,  proprio  sacerdoti  et  iniunctam  sibi  poeni- 
tentiam  studeat  pro  viribus  implere,  suscipiens  reveren- 
ter  ad  minus  in  Pascha  eucharistiae  sacramentum  ;  nisi 
forte  de  consilio  proprii  sacerdotis  oh  aliquam  rationabi- 
lem  caiisam  ad  tempus  ab  ejus  perceptione  duxerit  absti- 
nendum  ;  alioquin  et  vivens  ab  ingressu  ecclesiae  arceatur 
et  moriens  Christiana  careat  sepultura. — Si  quis  autem 
alieno  sacerdoti  voluerit  iusta  de  causa  sua  confiteri  pec- 
cata, licentiam  priuspostulet  et  obtineat  a  proprio  sacer- 
dote,  cum  aliter  ille  ipse  non  possit  solvere  vel  ligare. 
Sacerdos  autem  sit  discretus  et  caiitus — diligenter  inqui- 
rens  et  peccatoris  circumstantiam  et  peccati,  per  quas 
prudenter  intelligat,  quale  illi  consilium  debeat  exhibere 
et  cuiusmodi  remedium  adhibere,  diversis  expenmentis 
utendo  ad  sanandum  aecrrotum.  Caveat  autem  omnino, 
ne  verbo  vel  signo  vel  alio  quovis  modo  prodat  aliquate- 
nus  peccatorem,  sed  si  prudentioii  consilio  indiguerit, 
illud  absque  ulla  expressione  personae  caute  requirat ; 
quoniam  qui  peccatum  in  poenitentiali  indicio  sibi  detec- 
turn  praesumserit  revelare,  non  solum  a  sacerdotali  officio 


124  muenscher's  elements 

deponendum  decernimus,  vernm  etiam  ad  agendam  poe- 
nitentiam  perpetuam  in  arctum  monasterium  detruden- 
dum. 

Jo,  Lavnoih  explicata  ecclesiae  traditio  circa  canonem 
Concilii  Lateranensis  :  Omnis  utriusque  sexus — in  his 
0pp.  T.  I.  P.  I.     p.  244. 

Jo.  Dallaei,  de  poenis  et  salisfactionibus  humanis,  Libri 
VII;  Amst.  1649.   4to. 

Ejusd.  de  sacramentali  s.  auriculari  confessioneLalinorum, 
Disputatio ;  Genev.  1661.  4to.  Comp. 

Natalis  Alexandri  Disputatio  polemica  de  Confess,  sacra- 
ment.—in  his  Hist.  Eccles.  T.  VIL 

De  la  frequente  communion,  ou  les  sentimens  des  peres, 
des  papes  et  des  conciles  touchant  I'usage  des  sacramens 
de  penitence  et  de  Teucharistie  ; — exposes  par  Antoine 
Arnaud,  lOme  ed.  a  Lyon  1703,  8vo. 

De  la  penitence  puhlique  et  de  la  preparation  a  la  commun- 
ion : — par  D.  PetaUy  3d  ed.  Paris  1645.  4to. 

La  tradition  de  rEs^hse  sur  le  sujet  de  la  penitence  et  de 
la  communion  ; — par  Ant,  Arnaud.  Par.  1634.  5th  ed. 
1700,  8vo. 

Historia  confessionisauricularis  ;  autore  Jac.  Boileau,  Paris 
1684.  Compare. 

Jo,  Guil.  Jani,  Animadv.  ad  Historiam  confess,  auric. — 
Diss.  n.  Vitenb.  1716. 

Jac,  Hottlnger,  Biga  exercitatt.  histor.  thcoL  de  Poenitentia 
turn  antiquioris  tiim  Romanae  ecclesiae;  Tig.  1706. 

Commentarius  historicus,  de  disciplina  ecclesiae  in  admin - 
istralione  sacramenti  poenitentiae  ;  autliore  Jo,  Morin, 
Antvv.  1682.  Fol. 

Sec.  149.     Remission  of  satisfaction.     Indulgences, 

It  had  before  been  practiced,  to  curtail,  and  under 
special  circumstances  wholly  to  remit,  the  penance  en- 
joined by  the  church.  Afterwards,  a  commutation  was 
admitted,  in  regard  to  the  various  kinds  of  penance. 
But  it  was  not  until  the  commencement  of  the  Crusades, 
that  the  Popes  conferred  plenary  indulgences.     These 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  ISkb 

were  again  resorted  to,  in  the  wars  against  heretics ;  and 
by  Boniface  VII.  they  were  conferred,  at  the  Romish 
Jubilee  A.  D.  1300 ;  and  at  length,  they  were  published 
in  various  countries  by  the  Papal  envoys.  To  justify 
this  species  of  indulgences,  Alexander  Hales  invented 
the  theory  of  a  treasure  of  good  w^orks,  embracing  both 
the  merits  of  the  saints,  and  the  infinite  merit  of  Christ, 
the  efficacy  of  which,  extended  not  only  to  the  temporal 
punishments  of  the  present  life,  but  likewise  to  those  of 
Purgatory ;  and  the  disposal  of  this  accumulated  treas- 
ure, he  supposed,  was  intrusted  by  Christ  to  the  church. 
Albert  the  Great  and  Thomas  Aquinas  perfected  this 
theory ;  and  it  was  solemnly  confirmed  by  the  Pope, 
Clement  VI.  A.  D.  1349.  And  yet,  in  the  bosOm  of 
the  Romish  church,  there  w^ere  voices  raised  against  the 
mischief  of  indulgences. 

Notices.  De  remission©  peccatorurn  et  indulrrentiarum 
oritjine  ; — in  L.  A.  Maratori,  Antiquitatt.  Jtaliae  medii 
aevi  ;  T.  V.  p.  709. 

Lettres  historiques  et  dojTinatiqucs,  sur  les  Jubiles  et  les  in- 
dulgences ;  par  Charles  Chais ;  a  la  Haye  1751.  3  voL 
8vo. 

Em.  Aug.  Bertling,  Instruction  conrerninGf  the  Papal  Ju- 
bilee and  Indulgences  ;   (Germ.)  Helmst.  1749.  4to. 

Fr.  RofJifischers  Indulgences  and  Jubilee;  (German,) 
Regensb.  and  VVolfenbutle  1751 — 54.  111.  Vol.  4to. 

Sec.  150.  Sacrament  of  Extreme  Uunction, 
The  ancient  custom,  introduced  by  the  very  Apostles, 
of  anointing  the  sick,  with  accompanying  prayers,  con- 
tinued among  christians,  although  in  the  earlier  ages  few 
traces  of  it  are  to  be  found ;  but  no  definite  form  of  the 
transaction,  w^as  introduced.  Subsequent  to  the  ninth 
century,  this  anointment  was  called  a  sacrament ;  and  it 
was  assumed,  that  it  ought  not  to  be  repeated  ;  which, 
Ivo  of  Chartres,  in  particular,  zealously  maintained.  But 
Peter  Lombard  defended  the  repetition  of  it;  and  the 
whole  church  afterwards  followed  him.     The  effect  of 

12 


126  muenscher's  elements 

anointing  the  sick,  was  supposed  to  be,  that  it  soothed 
the  soul,  and  so  far  as  was  profitable,  the  body  also,  of 
the  sick  person,  and  imparted  to  him  forgiveness  of  sin 
and  an  increase  of*  holiness. 

Notices.  Jo.  Dallaei  de  duobus  Latinorum  ex  unctione 
sacramenlis  ;  Genev.   1659.  4to. 

Jo.  LaunoiU  de  sacra mcnto  unctionis  infirmorum,  Liber  ; — 
in  his  Opp.  T.  I.  P.  I.  p.  442,  &,c. 

Sec.  151.  The  Sacrament  of  Ordination. 
The  consecration  of  prrests,  was  declared  to  be  a  token 
of  the  church,  by  which  ecclesiastical  power  was  confer- 
red ;  and  it  was  supposed,  to  impress  an  indelible  cha- 
racter. The  question,  whether  heretics  could  give  valid 
ordination,  was  left  undecided  by  Lombard^  and  was  af- 
firmed by  Thomas,  The  other  inquiries  made  by  the 
Scholastics,  respecting  the  seven  gradations,  and  the  at- 
tributes of  the  clergy,  belong  rather  to  ecclesiastical  law, 
than  to  dogmatics. 

Notice.  Joan.  3Iorini  Commentarius  historicus  at  dogmati- 
cus,  de  sacris  ecclesiae  ordinationibus  ;  edit.  nov.  Anist. 
1695.  Fol. 

Sec.  152.  Sacrament  of  Marriage. 
Marriage  was  held  to  be  inferior  to  celibacy,  and  was 
forbidden  to  the  clergy;  and  yet  it  was  accounted  a 
sacrament.  Three  good  things  in  marriage,  were  stated; 
namely,  fidelity  to  the  vow,  raising  up  children,  and  re- 
presenting the  union  between  Christ  and  the  church. 
From  the  idea  of  its  being  a  sacrament,  it  was  inferred 
that,  marriage  being  validly  performed,  becomes  indisso- 
luble. Here  also  a  multitude  of  questions,  respecting 
betrothments,  hindrances  to  tlie  union,  and  the  relations 
which  arise  from  marriage,  were  brought  into  theology, 
though  belonging  to  ecclesiastical  law. 

Notice.  The  most  solid  examination  of  the  views  entertain- 
ed of  marriage  in  this  period,  is  to  be  found  in  Just. 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  127 

Henn.  Bokmeri  Jus  ecclesiasticum  Protestantium,  Lib. 
IV.  T.  Ill  et  IV. 

Sec.  153.     State  of  departed  souls. 

The  idea,  formed  in  the  preceding  period,  of  a  puri- 
fying fire,  became  established  ;  in  consequence  of  the  re- 
ports of  apparitions,  which  were  spread  abroad,  and  to 
which  Beda  and  Boniface  gave  credit.  There  were  sup- 
posed to  be,  five  places  of  residence  for  souls.  The  souls 
that  left  the  world,  under  mortal  sin,  and  without  doing 
penance,  were  thrust  into  hell.  The  souls  of  infants,  that 
died  without  baptism,  occupied  a  separate  place,  called 
hmbus  infantum.  Diverse  from  both,  was  the  hmbus  pa- 
trum,  or  Abraham's  bosom,  in  which  the  souls  of  the  vir- 
tuous under  the  Old  Testament,  were  kept.  Good  souls, 
which  needed  no  purgation,  went  immediately  to  heaven. 
The  caution  of  Hugo  of  St.  Victor^  to  leave  it  undecided, 
whether  glorified  saints  know  what  transpires  on  the  earth, 
and  have  perception  of  the  prayers  offered  to  them,  was 
not  imitated  by  the  subsequent  doctors.  Pope  John  XXII. 
revived  the  ancient  opinion,  that  saints  are  not  admitted 
to  the  vision  of  God,  immediately  after  death  ;  but  only 
at  the  resurrection ;  but  the  opposition  of  the  Franciscans 
and  the  Parisian  divines,  obliged  him  to  recal  that  opin- 
ion; and  his  successor,  Benedict  XII.  in  the  year  1336, 
pronounced  it  heresy.  Purgatory  was  appointed  for  those 
souls,  which  had  not  done  penance  for  their  minor  sins. 
The  Greeks  continued,  to  place  the  commencement  of  this 
fire,  at  the  time  of  the  general  judgment,  and  not  in  the  in- 
termediate state,  ''or  immediately  after  death  ;  and  it  was 
with  reluctance,  and  after  warm  opposition,  that,  the  Council 
oi  Florence,  A.  D.  1439,  they  acceeded  to  the  views  of 
the  Latins.  Not  only  the  Waldenses  and  TVicklifites,  but 
also  John  fVessel,  rejected  the  doctrine  of  purgatory. 
Notices.     Leonis  Allatii,  de  ulriusque  ecclesiae  orientalis  et 

occidentalis  perpetua  in  dogmate  de  purgatorio  consen- 

sione  Liber.  Romae.  1655.  4to, 
'  Mich.  Le  Quien,  Diss.  Damascenica  V  ;    in  his.ed.  of  0pp. 

Damasceni,  T.  I.  LXIIL 


128 

/.  G,  Chr.  Hoepfner,  de  Origine  dogmatis  Roman.  Pontif. 
de  purgatorio  ;  Halae.  1792, 

Sec.  154.  Doctrine  concerning  the  church. 
In  the  prevailing  system  of  faith,  the  doctrine  concern- 
ing the  church,  formed  as  it  were  the  key  stone.  The 
only  church,  in  which  there  is  salvation,  is  that,  which  be- 
ing above  all  danger  of  erring,  has  a  right  to  prescribe 
articles  of  faith,  and  rules  of  life,  to  decide  all  religious 
.  controversies,  and  to  put  down  heresies  by  coercion. 
Independent  of  every  temporal  power,  it  is  competent, 
and  is  in  duty  bound,  to  resist  all  misuse  of  authority  in 
civil  governments.  The  Popes  were  acknowledged,  as 
heads  of  this  church  ;  and  they  did  not  neglect,  to  make  it 
an  article  of  faith,  that  their  decrees  were  to  be  received, 
unconditionally ;  yet  without  suppressing  all  doubts  of 
their  infallibility,  and  without  being  able,  to  prevent  the 
Councils  of  Constance  and  Basil  from  assuming  the  power 
of  judging  over  them. 

Notices.     De  la  primauld  de  TEglise ;    par   D,  Blondcl;. 
Genev.  1641.  Fol. 

Mar.  Anton.  De  Dominisy  de  republica  ecclesiastica  ;  P.  I 
—III.  1618—22. 

Petri  de  Marco,  de  concordia  sacerdotii  et  imperii,  Libri 
Vril;  Francf.  1708.  . 

(F.  A,  BlaUy)  Critical  history  of  ecclesiastical  infallibility; 
^in  German,)  Francf.  1791.  8vo. 


THIRD  PERIOD. 

MODERN    TIMES,    A.    D.    1517 1800. 


PART  1.  ^ 

GENERAL     VIEW     OF     THE     CHANGES     IN     DOCTRINAL 
THEOLOGY. 

Sec.   155.      Causes  leading  to  new  modifications  of 
theology,  • 

The  new  direction,  which  the  minds  of  the  learned 
had  taken  since  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  at 
first,  showed  itself  in  classical  literature  ;  but  in  that  very 
way,  it  had  influence  indirectly  upon  theology  ;  for  it  gave 
rise  to  a  wider  and  freer  range  of  thought,  and  produced 
a  contempt  for  idle  speculations  and  scholastic  barbarisms. 
And  the  effect  became  still  greater,  when  men  of  classical 
learning,  came  to  apply  themselves  to  the  science  of  the- 
ology ;  when  Laurentius  Thalia  began  to  expound  the 
New  Testament,  according  to  a  better  taste,  and  John 
Reuchlin  (Capnio)  revived  the  study  of  Greek  and  He- 
brew. But  all  others  were  outdone  by  Desiderius  Eras- 
mus, who  with  ridicule  and  sound  argument,  made  war 
upon  ignorance  and  superstition,  laid  open  the  purer  foun- 
tains of  religious  knowledge,  and  brought  forward  more 
liberal  views,  counsels  and  decisions.  By  these  means, 
Erasmus  laid  the  foundation  for  a  better  theology,  though 
he  neither  formed  nor  attempted  to  form  a  system  of 
divinity. 

Notices.     Desid.  Erasmi  Opera.;  cms.  J.  Clerii;  Amstel. 
1703.  X.  vol.  Fol. 

12* 


130  muenscher's  elements 

(V.  Brenlus)  Theology  of  Erasmus,  or  outlines  of  ihe  doc- 
trines of  Christianity,  from  the  writings  of  Erasmus  ;  (in 
German.)     Ziillichau.  1794.  8vo. 

Sec.  156.     Introduction  of  the  reformation. 

Martin  Luther^  well  read  in  mystic  theology,  and  in 
the  writings  of  Augustine,  by  his  dislike  of  the  traffic  in 
indulgences,  was  led  on,  to  a  decisive  attack  upon  the  m 
prevailing  theology  of  the  age  ;  and  through  his  influence,  I 
a  new  Christian  party  was  established,  whose  opinions  are 
expressed  in  the  Augsburg  Confession  and  in  their  Apo- 
logy, Nearly  at  the  sanne  time,  Ulrich  Zunngle  com- 
menced and  accomplished,  with  true  Swiss  independence, 
nearly  the  same  thing,  at  Zurich.  Both  Protestant 
churches  went  upon  the  ground,  of  acknowledging  no 
otjier  authoritative  source  of  religious  instruction,  but  the 
Bible.  This  broad  principle,  swept  away,  at  a  stroke, 
many  doctrines  founded  only  upon  tradition ;  and  it  ex- 
cited to  new  ardor,  in  the  study  of  the  scriptures.  Free- 
dom from  the  restraining  power  of  the  hierarchy,  facilita- 
ted the  spread  of  new  and  better  views.  Zwingle,  and 
still  more  Luther,  gave  a  new  aspect  to  many  points  in 
theology;  and  they  had  numerous  pupils  and  assistants, 
who  were  formed  upon  their  pattern,  and  after  their  ex- 
ample. 

Notices.  Luther  a  collected  Works  ;  (in  German  and  La- 
tin,) edited  by  J.  G,  Walch.  Halle.  1740—62.  XXIV. 
vol.  4to. 

LutJieri  Theologia  pura  sincera,  ex  viri  divini  scriptis  uni- 
versis  maxime  tamen  Latinis,  per  omnes  fidei  divini  arti- 
cnlosdigesta  etconcinnata,  per  Henricum Malum.  Francf. 
adMoen.  1709.  Fol. 

ZwingliOpervi ;  Tiguri  1544-45.  IV.  vol.  Fol. — and  abridg- 
ed, by  Uster  and  Vogelin ;  1819—20.  If.  vol.  8vo. 
Commentarius  de  vera  et  falsa  religione  ;  Tig.  1625. 
8vo. 


I 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  181 

Sec.  157.     First  Protestant  systems  of  Theology, 

Philip  Melanchthon,  commendable  alike  for  his  learn- 
ing and  his  wise  moderation,  was  the  first,  that  supplied 
the  want  of  a  connected  system  of  religious  doctrines,  in' 
his  Loci  Communes,  which  he  brought  nearer  and  nearer 
to  perfection  by  repeated  revisions.  This  work  was  re- 
ceived with  general  approbation,  and  served  for  a  guide 
to  learned  instruction,  in  the  Lutheran  church.  Martin 
Chemnitz  and  Victorinus  Striegel  composed  commenta- 
ries on  it.  In  the  Reformed  church,  the  Institutes  of 
John  Calvin,  were  of  similar  merits,  and  obtained  similar 
influence.  Andrew  Hyperius  and  Wolfgang  Musculus 
were  emulous  followers  of  the  example  of  Calvin ;  and 
from  the  writings  of  the  famous  biblical  expositor,  Peter 
Martyr  Ve^-mili,  a  system  of  theology  was  compiled. 
Besides  the  Protestants,  other  ecclesiastical  parties  were 
formed ;  among  whom  the  Unitarians  or  Socinians,  and 
the  Baptists,  had  most  influence  upon  systematic  the- 
ology. 

Notices.  Phil.  Melanchthonis  Loci  Theolog,  sivo'Hypoty- 
poses  theolog.  Vileb.  1 521.  and  in  Herman,  von  derHardt, 
Hist,  reformationis  :  Francf.  1717.  Kespecting  the  va- 
rious editions  of  it  :  Essay  of  a  literary  histoiy  of  the 
Loci  Theologici  of  Phil.  Melancfithon  ;  (in  German,) 
hy  Ge,  Theod.  Strobel ;  Altd.  and  Nuremb.  1776.  8vo. 
U'he  other  writings  of  Melanchthon,  are  his  Opera  The- 
log.  Vitenb.  1562 — 64.  IV.  vol.  Fol.  Martini  Qhemni- 
tii  Loci  theolog  ;  editi  studio  Polyc.  LeyserU  Francf. 
1591.  4to.  and  Viteb.  1590.  Fol.  Viciorini  Strigelii 
Loci  theolosr.  studio  Christoph,  Pczelii ;  Neapoli  Neme- 
turn.  1582-85.  IV.  vol.  4to 

Jo.  Calvini  Institutio  christianae  religionis ;  Basil.  1535. 
Genev.  1559.  Fol.  and  in  his  Opera  ;'  Amstel.  1667.  IX. 
vol.  Fol.  (Gerdesii  Scrinium  liteiar.  T.  II.  p.  451.) 
Andreae  Hyperii  Meihodus  Theologiae,sivepraecipnorurn 
christianae  religionis  locorum  communinm,  Libri  III.  Ba- 
sil. 1568,  1574.  8vo.     Wolfg,  Musculi  Loci  communes 


132 

theolog.  Bern.  1573.  Fol.     Petri  Martyrishociiheolog, 
Basil.  1570.  Fol. 

Catechesis  ecclesiarum  Polonicarura,  unum  Deum  patrem, 
illiusque  filium  unigenitum  J.  C.  una  cum  Spiritu  S. 
profitentiuoi ;  ed.  noviss.  Stauropoli  (Amstel.)  1684. 
8vo. — recensuit,  Socinianam  irnpietam  profligavit,  Ge, 
Lud.  Oeder ;  Francf.  et  Lips.  1739.  8vo. — Bibliotheca 
fratrum  Polonorum  ;  Irenopoli  (Amstel,)  post  annum 
1656.  VI.  vol.  Fol. 

Concise  statement  of  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  F.  Soci- 
nus  ;  (in  German,)  by  W,  C.  L.  Ziegler  ;  in  Henke's 
New  Magazine,  Vol.  IV.  p.  201.  Thoughts  on  a  his- 
torical and  analytical  exposition  of  the  Socinian  theology; 
iiri  German,)  by  Dr,  Bengel ;  in  Sijskind's  Magazin. 
•t.  XIX.  p.   133. 

Sec.  158.  Reaction  upon  the  Catholic  church. 
The  bold  attacks  of  the  reformers,  upon  the  received 
doctrines  of  the  church,  roused  the  Catholics  to  a  vigo- 
rous resistance.  The  Council  of  Trent  condemned  all 
innovations,  and  gave  that  statement  of  the  Catholic  faith, 
which  has  ever  since  been  retained.  The  Jesuits  came 
forth,  as  the  most  disputatious  defenders  of  that  system 
of  theology ;  but  they  soon  fell  into  contentions,  with  other 
theologians  of  their  church.  Many  of  these  divines,  ad- 
hered to  the  old  method  of  teaching  ;  and  wrote  comments 
upon  Thomas  Aquinas  or  Duns  Scotus.  Others  en- 
deavored to  improve  the  method  of  teaching.  John 
Eck  attempted,  to  put  down  Melanchthon's  Loci  theolo- 
gici,  by  a  work  of  his  own ;  and  Melchior  Canus  distin- 
guished himself,  by  avoiding  useless  subtilties,  and  by  a 
purer  style  of  waiting.  The  Jesuits,  Robert  Bellarmin 
and  Martin  Becan,  became  famous  in  the  conflict  with 
the  Protestants. 

Notices,  Concilii  Tridentini  canones  et  decreta ;  Rom. 
1564. — (Histoire  du  Concile  de  Trent;  par  Fra  Paolo 
Sarpi,  traduite  par  P.  F,  de  Courayer ;  Amst.  1736. 
III.  vol.  4to.  [Also  in  English,  fiom  the  Italian;  by 
Brent,  Lond.  1620.  Fol.]     Istoria  del  concilio  di  Trento 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  133 

— dal  Sforza  Pallaviceno ;  Rom.  1656 — 57.  II.  YoL 
Fol.  [and  Latin,  by  Jo.  Bapt,  Giattino;  Antw.  1673* 
Fq].] 

Monumentoriim  ad  Hist,  concil.  Trid.  illustrandum  ani« 
plissima  collectio  ; — studio  Jodoci  le  Plat;  Lovan.  1781 
— 87.  VHl  Tomi  4to.)  Professio  fidei  Tridentinae. — 
Catechismus  ex  decreto  Concil.  Tiidentini,  Fii  V  jussii 
editus;  Rom.  1566.  Fol. 

Jo,  Eck,  Enchiridion  locorum  coiTimuninm,  adversus  Lu- 
theranos  ;  Landshuti  1525.  Doederlein's  Tlieol.  Jour- 
nal; vol.  I.  P.  VI.  p.  458— 491  )— i»ieW.  Canu  de 
Locis  theologicis,  LIbri  XII ;  Salamancae  1563.  ed.  no- 
viss.  a  Hyac.  Scrry ;  A^enet.  1759.4to. — Roberti  Bellar- 
mini  de  controversiis  ehristianae  fidei,  adversus  hujus 
temporis  haereticos  ;  e.  g.  Ingolst.  1601;  IV.  Vol.  Fol. 
— Martini  Becani  Manuale  controversiarum  ;  Herbipol. 
1623;  and  in  his  Opera;  Mogunt.  1649.  II.  Tomi 
Fol. 

Sec.  159.     Completion  of  the  Lutheran  system  of  faith. 

The  numerous  controversies,  which  arose  among  the 
followers  of  Luther,  after  his  decease,  threatened  the 
whole  church  with  confusion.  To  suppress  these  dis- 
cords, and  particularly  to  guard  against  the  dangers, 
which  were  supposed  to  threaten  pure  Lutheranism, 
from  Melanchthon's  school,  the  Formula  of  Concord 
was  drawn  up ;  and  the  Book  of  Concord  was  set  forth> 
containing,  in  addition  to  the  Formula  of  Concord, 
(which  determined  the  existing  controversies  with  greater^ 
•precision,)  the  Augsburgh  Confession,  the  Apology,  the 
Articles  of  Smalcald,  and  the  two  Catechisms  of  Luther; 
all  which  were  to  be  the  rule  and  measure  of  the  genu- 
ine Lutheran  creed.  According  to  these  formulas,  the- 
ology was  to  be  investigated  and  modelled ;  so  that 
henceforth,  it  breathed  a  narrow  sectarian  spirit,  and  ap- 
peared under  the  guise  of  an  intricate  scholastic  system,, 
in  which  much  use  was  made  of  the  philosophy  of  Ra- 
mus or  Aristotle.  The  attempts  of  George  Calixtus^  to 
introduce  more  freedom  of  discussion,  and  more  candor 


154  muenscher's  elements 

towards  those  of  different  views,  met  with  strong  opposi- 
tion. 

Notices.  Concordia  ;  The  Christian,  revised,  unanimous 
Confession  of  the  hereafter  named,  Electoral  Princes, 
Princes,  and  Orders,  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  ;  (in 
German,)  Dresden  1580.  Fol.  and  Latin,  Lips.  1580,  and 
1584.  8vo.  Also  edited  by  Ad.  Rechenberg,  Lips.  1678. 
Svo. — by  Chr,  Reineccius,  Lips.  1735.  4to. — by  Ch,  M^ 
Pfaff,  Tubing.  1730.  8vo. — by  S.  J.  Baumgarten,  Halle 
1747.  8vo.— by  J.  G.  Walch,  Jena.  1750.  8vo.— and 
by  J.  A.  H.  Tittmann,  Lips.  1817.  8vo. — History  of  the 
origin,  variations,  and  formation  of  our  Protestant  system 
of  Theology,  until  the  Formula  of  Concord  ;  (in  German,) 
by  Jac.  Gottl  Planck;  Lips.  1791—1800.  VL  Vol.  8vo. 
— Jo.  Gail.  Feuerlini,  Bibliotheca  symbol ica  eccles.  Lu- 
theranae  ;  ed.  J»  B .  Riederer ;  1768.  8vo. 

Leonhardi  Hutteri,  Compendium  locorum  theolog.  Vitenb. 
1610.  8vo.  and  Lips.  1705. — Ejusd.  Loci  communes 
Theolog.  Vitenb.  1619,  1653,  1661.  Fol.— Jac.  Heere- 
brandi,  Compendium  Theologiae  ;  Tubing.  1573.  8vo. — 
Matth.  Hafenrefferif  Loci  theolog.  Tub.  1601. — Joannis 
Gerhardi  Loci  theolog.  Francf.  et  Hamb.  1657.  HL 
Vol.  Fol. — denuo  edidit,  variique  generis  observationes 
adjecit,  Jo.  Fr.  Cotta;  Tub.  1762— 89.XXH.  Vol.  4to. 
Gasp.  Er.  Brochmund,  Systema  universae  theologiae  ; 
Hafn.  1633.  K.  Vol.  4to.  ed.  6  ta,  Ulmae  1664.  Fol.— 

.  6^e.  CaZ/x/i,  Epitome  theologiae  ;  Goslarl619- — Systema 
locorum  theolog. — auctore  Abr.  Calor>io  ;  W ittenb.  1 655 
— 77.  XIL  Tomi  4to. — Jo.  Fr.  Koenigii,  Theologia 
positiva  acroamatica  ;  Rosloch  1664.  8vo. — Jo.  Andr. 
Quenstedt,  Theologia  didactico-polemica  ;  Wittenb.  1685. 
Fol. — Jo.  Adami  Scherzeri,  Systema  Theologiae  XXIX 
definitionibus  absolutum  ;  Lips.  1680.  ed.  4ta  1704.  4to. 
Jo.  Guil.  Baieri,  Compendium  theologiae  positivae ; 
Jenae  1686.  8vo.  et  1750. — Dav,  Hollazj  Examen  theo^ 
log.  acroamaticum,  universam  Theol.  thetico-polemicam 
complectens  ;  Holm,  et  Lips.  1707  ;  auxit  jK.  Tellerua  \ 
Holm.  1750,  4to, 


OF    DOGMATIC    IiISTORT.  135^ 

Sec.  160.  Variations  in  doctrine,  in  the  Reformed 
church. 
No  general  and  uniform  system  of  faith,  was  introdu- 
ced into  the  Reformed  church.  Yet  Calvin*s  system, 
prevailed  in  Switzerland ;  and  in  the  Low  Countries,  it 
triumphed  over  Jac,  Arminius  and  his  adherents,  at  the 
Synod  of  Dort,  A.  D.  1618,  1619.  The  vanquished 
Arrainian  party,  embraced  some  valuable  theologians. 
The  decisions  at  Dort,  became  the  rule  of  faith  for  the 
churches  of  Holland ;  and  they  met  with  approbation,  in 
the  Swiss  churches.  Henceforth  the  form  of  their  theo- 
logy, was  scholastic  and  polemic  ;  and  a  strict  adherence 
to  the  views  of  Calvin,  and  of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  was 
the  highest  recommendation  of  any  treatise  written  on 
theology. 

Notices.  Corpus  et  syntagma  Confessionum  fidei ;  ed. 
nova,  Genev.  1654.  4to. — Acta  Synod!  nationalis  Dor- 
drechti  habitae  ;   Dordr.   1620.  Fol.  Hanov.  1620.  4to. 

Slmonis  Episcopii',  Instil utionum  theologicar.  Libri  IV  ;  in 
his  Opp.  T.  ].  ed.  2,  Lond.  1678.  Fol.  Staph.  Curcellad, 
Institutio  religionis  christianae  ;  in  his  Opp.  Theol.  Amst. 
1675.  Fol.  Philippi  a  Limborch,  Theologia  Christiana  ; 
Amst.  1686.  4to.  1730.  Fol.  Basil.  1735.  Fol.  Adn- 
ani  a  Cattenburg,  Spicilegium  theologiae  christ.  Philippi 
aLimborch;    1726.   Fol. 

Jo.  Maccovii,  IjOc\  communes  theolog.  Franeq.  1639.  8vo. 
1 650.  4to. — Amandi  Polani  a  Polansdorf,  Syntagma  The- 
ol. christianae;  Hanov.  1610.  H.  vol.  4to.  Genev.  1699. 
Fol. — Samuelis  Maresii,  Systema  theoloaicum  ;  Gronov. 
1649.  12mo.  1673.  4to. — Marci  Fr,  Wendelini,  chris- 
tianae.Theol.  systema  majiis  ;  Cassel  1656.  4to. — Fjusd. 
christianae  Theol.  Libri  II  ;  Hanov.  1634.  12mo. 

Sec  161.     Attempts  of  the  Reformed,  to  improve  their 

theology. 

Many  theologians  were  not  insensible  to  the  defects  of 

the  symbolic,  scholastic,  theological  works.     John  Coc- 

ceius,  a  man  of  eminence,  but  a  better  linguist  than  in- 


136  muenscher's  elements 

terpreter  of  scripture,  wished  to  divest  theology  of  all  itd 
scholastic  niceties,  and  to  exhibit  it  in  its  plain  biblical 
form ;  and  he  assumed  as  the  basis,  the  idea  of  two  dis- 
pensations. This  innovation  involved  him  with  the 
friends  to  the  old  system,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  Gis- 
bert  Voetius;  and  the  theologians  of  Holland  became 
divided  into  Cocceians  and  Voetians,  About  the  same 
time,  the  Cartesian  philosophy  excited  attention,  in  the 
low  countries;  and,  as  the  Voetians  assailed  it,  the  Coc- 
ceians went  over  to  the  side  of  the  Cartesians,  and  be- 
came amalgamated  with  them.  Among  them,  Herman 
Witsius,  Christopher  TVittich,  and  Alexander  Roel,  and 
among  their  opposers,  Peter  van  Mastricht,  deserve  the 
highest  place.  The  Cocceian  theology  was  spread  in 
Germany,  by  Frederick  Adolphus  Lampe  especially; 
and  the  Cartesian,  by  John  Clauherg  (d.  1669).  The 
French  reformed  divines,  as  Lewis  le  Blanc,  and  Moses 
Amyraudy  endeavored  to  soften  some  points  of  Calvin- 
ism ;  but  the  Swiss  theologians  were  dissatisfied,  and 
attempted  to  shut  out  these  innovations,  by  the  Formula 
consensus  Helvetic!  A.  D.  1675. 

Notices,  Jo  Coccm  Sum  ma  doctrinae  de  foedere  et  testa* 
menlo  Dei  ;  Ludo.  1648  ;  and  in  his  0pp.  Torn.  Vll.  ed. 
Amstel.  1710.  Tomi  X.  Gull,  Momviae^  Oeconomia 
testa;nentana  triplex  ;  ed.  auotior,  Amstel.  1683.  4to. 
Francisci  BurmannU  Synopsis  tiseolojiiae,  et  speciatim' 
oeconomiae  foederum  Dei;  Ultraj.  1671  Franeq.  1699. 
4to.  Abr,  Heidaniy  Corpus?  theoloaine  rhrislianae  ; 
Lugd.  Bat.  1646.  4to.  Jo,  Bravnii,  Doctrina  foede- 
rum  ;  Avnst.  1688.  Francf.  1711.  4t{).  HermanniWU'  . 
*«,  Oeconomiae  foederum  Dei  cum  honiiiiihus,  Lihri 
IV.  Leov.  1677.  Basd  1739.  II.  vol.  4to.  Fred.  Adol. 
Lampe,  Mysteries  of  the  Covenant  of  Grace  in  tiie  econo- 
iny  of  salvation;  (in  German.)  Bremen  1712.  Yl.  vol. 
8vo.  Gisbert  Voetii  Selectarmu  disputationum  theolog. 
Pars  I — V.  Ultraj.  1648 — 69.  Melchioris  Leydeckeri 
Synopsis  theologiae  christ.  Traj.  ad  Rhen.  1696.  Ejusd, 
Oeconomia  trium  personarum  in  negotiis  salutis  hunia- 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORT.  137 

nae;  1682.  Petri  van  Mastricht,  Theologm  iheoretico* 
practica  ;  Amstel.  1682—84.  Ultraj.  1669  II.  vol.  4to. 

Christoph,  Wiitichii,  Theologia  pacifica  ;  ed.  3.  Lugd, 
Bat.  1683.  4to.  Ejusd.  Theologia  pacifica  defensa  ; 
1689.  4to.  Jo.  C/aw&ero-if,  Exercitationes  de  cognitione 
Dei  et  nostri.  Harling.  1685.  8vo.  Novitatum  Carte- 
sianarum  gangraena  detecta  ;  auctore  Petro  van  Ma-' 
tricht.     Amstel.   1677. 

Syntagma  thesium  theologicarum  in  academia  Saimiiriensi 
disputatarum  snb  praes.  Lud.  Capelli,  Mos,  Amyraldi, 
Jos.piacei;  Salmari,  ed  2.  1665.  IV.  vol.  4to.  Bened, 
Pictet,  Theologie  chretienne ;  a  Geneve,  1721.  III. 
vol.  4to. 

J.  Henr.  Heideggeri,  Medulla  theologiae.  Tiguri  1696. 
4to.  Medulla  medullae ;  1697.  8vo.  Corpus  theolo- 
giae Christ.  Tiguri  1700.  II.  vol.  Fol.  Institutiones 
theologiae  elenchticae;  authore  Franc.  Turretin.  Ge- 
nev.  1688.  III.  Partes  4to.  ed.  nova  recognita  etaucta; 
Lugd.  Bnt.   1695.  III.  vol.  4to. 

Sec.  162.  Achievements  oj  Spener,  in  regard  to  the  Im-- 
theran  theology, 

Philip  James  Spener,  a  disciple  of  John  Conrad  Dan- 
hauer,  was  penetrated  with  a  conviction,  that  the  theology 
of  that  age,  did  not  satisfy  a  religious  mind,  and  that  it 
was  not  suited,  to  form  good  teachers  of  religion.  He 
therefore  recommended  banishing  the  multifarious  sub- 
tle inquiries,  the  multiplied  technics,  and  the  polemic 
mode  of  treatment ;  and  urged,  in  place  of  them,  a  purer 
biblical  and  practical  statement  of  the  doctrines  of  faith. 
Although  sincerely  devoted  to  the  creed  of  the  Lutheran 
church,  he  labored  to  abate  the  excessive  value  put  upon 
ecclesiastical  orthodoxy  and  symbols  of  faith.  Violent 
as  the  opposition,  he  had  to  encounter,  was,  his  designs 
were  not  without  effect ;  and  in  the  university  of  Halle 
especially,  theology  was  taught  after  his  manner.  This 
was  simple,  and  directed  primarily  to  form  a  pious  char- 
acter ;  but  it  was  deficient  in  distinctness  of  ideas,  in  the 
use  of  learned  helps,  and  in  philosophical  discrimantion 
IS 


138  muenscher's  elements 

and  judgment.  Yet  John  Francis  Buddeus  at  Jena, 
knew  how  to  combine  the  excellences  of  the  HaJlean 
mode  of  teaching,  with  a  richness  of  learned  acquisitions ; 
and  some  Wiirtemburg  divines  also,  as  Christopher  Mat- 
thew Pf  off,  Siud  Christian  Eber hard  fFewmaww,  endeavor- 
ed to  simplify  dieological  doctrines,  and  to  teach  them  in 
a  more  biblical  manner. 

Notices,  Jo,  Conradi  Danhaueri,  Hodosophia  Christiana,  s. 
Theologia  positiva  in  certam,  plenum,  et  cohaeren- 
tem  methodum  redacta  ;  Argentor.  1649.  8vo.  Lips. 
1713.  4to. 

Phil,  Jac,  Spener,  Pia  desideria  ;  (1675.)  Francf.  1712.  jM 
12mo.  Ejusd,  General  theology,  for  all  faithful  chris-  |J 
tiar)s,  and  upright  theologians ;  (in  German,)  Francf. 
1680.  1705.  Ejusd,  Evangelical  system  of  iaith  ;  (in 
German,)  Francf,  1668.  Ejusd.  Sciagra|)hia  doctrinae 
fidei  evangelicae  ;  Francf.  1688.  8vo.  Joach.  Just.  Breit- 
hauptf  Institutionum  theologiae  Libri  11  ;  Halae  1695. 
8vo,  Ejusd,  Institutiones  theolooiae  de  credendis  et 
agendis  ;  Halae  1716 — 32.  III.  vol.  4to.  Jo,  Anastas, 
Freylingshausen,  The  foundation  of  theology  ;  (in  Ger- 
man,) Halle  1703.  last  ed.  1767.  8vo.  Jo.  Joach.  Lan- 
gii,  Oeconomia  salutis  evangelica  ;  Halae  1728.  1730. 
8vo.  Jo.  Jac.  Rambach^  Dogmatic  theology  ;  (in  Ger- 
man,) edited  by  Em.  Fred,  Neuhauer ;  Francf.  1744. 
H.  vol.  4to, 

Jo,  Fr.  Buddei,  Instilutiones  theologiae  dogmaticae  ;  Lips. 
1723.  lasted.  1741.  4to.  Christoph.  Maith.  Pfajii,  In- 
stitutiones  theologiae  dogmaticae  et  morahs  ;  Tub.  1720. 
Francf.  1721.  8vo.  Christ.  Eherh.  Weismanni,  Institu- 
tiones  theologiae  exegetico-dogmaticae  ;  Tub.  1739.  4to. 
Henr,  Wil.  Clemin,  Complete  introduction  to  theology; 
(in  German,)  Tubing.  1764-73.  VII  Vol.  4to. 

Sec.  163.  Influence  of  the  Wolfian  Philosopy. 
From  the  chief  seat  of  the  unphilosophical  Spenerian 
school,  proceeded  a  new  system  of  philosophy,  derived  by 
Christian  Wolf,  from  the  abstruse  ideas  of  Godfrey  Wil- 
liam von  Leibnitz,  The  pietistic  rmd  the  anti-pietistic 
theologians,  apprehending  the   overthrow  of  all  religion 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  Ill 

from  it,  rose  in  opposition  against  it ;  but  they  were  unable 
to  put  it  down,  or  to  prevent  its  being  applied  to  theology. 
From  the  Wolfian  philosophy,  theology  derived  a  mathe- 
matical form,  little  suited  to  its  nature  ;  yet  it  was  improv- 
ed by  a  more  solid  arrangement,  and  by  clearer  definitions. 
The  doctrines  of  faith,  were  treated  according  to  Wolfian 
principles,  not  only  in  the  Lutheran,  but  likewise  in  the 
Reformed  churches  :  and  James  Siegmund  Baumgarien 
caused  this  mode  of  teaching,  to  be  admitted  into  Halle. 
Still  there  were  theologians,  who,  without  taking  sides 
either  for  or  against  the  Wolfian  party,  endeavored  to  pro- 
fit by  what  was  good  in  both. 

Notices.  {Isra,  Gottl.  Canzii,  Usus  philosophiae  Leibni- 
tianae  et  Wolfianae  in  Tiieologia  ;  Francf.  1733.  II  Tomi, 
8vo.  Ejusd.  Consensus  philosophiae  Wolfianae  cum 
Theologia  ;  Francf.  1737.  8vo.)  Jac.  Carpovii,  Oeco* 
nomia  salutis  N.  T.  s.  Theologia  revelata  dogmatica 
methodo  scientifica  adornata ;  1737-65.  IV  vol.  4to. 
Joh.  Gusfav,  Reinheck's  Reflections  on  the  Augsburg 
Confession  ;  (in  German,)  Berlin.  1731-41.  [V  vol.  4to. 
continued  hy  Isr,  Gottl  Cam;  A^ol.  V— X.  Berlin  1743- 
47.  and  by  J.  Pet.  Ahlward  ;  1742-48.  VII  Parts,  or  II 
Vol.  4to.  Geo.  Henr.  Ribovii,  Institutiones  theolog.  dog- 
mat.  Gotting.  1741.  8vo.  Pet.  Reusch,  Introductio  in 
theologiam  revelatain;  Jenae.  1744.  8vo.  Isr,  GottL 
Canzii^  Compendium  theoloaiae  purioris ;  Tub.  1762. 
8vo.  Jo.  Ern.  Schubert,  Introductio  in  theologiam  re- 
velatam  ;  Jenae  1749.  Ejusd.  Institutiones  theologiae 
dogmat.  Jenae  1753.  Ejusd.  Compendium  theol.dogmat. 
Helmst.  et  Halae  1760.  8vo.  Ejusd.  Institutiones  theo- 
logiae polemicae  ;  Jen.  et  Lips.  1760-61.  IV  vol.  8vo. 
Siegm.  Jac.  Baumgarferij  Theses  theologicae ;  Halae 
1746,  1767.  8vo.  Ejusd.  Evangelical  Svstem  of  faith  j 
(in  German,)  edited  by  J.  S.  Sender ;  Halle  1759-60. 
Ill  vol.  4to.  Ejusd.  Examination  of  theological  contro- 
versies ;  (in  German,)  edited  by  J.  S.  Sender ;  Halle 
1762-64.  IIIvol.  4to. 

Pan.Wyttenbach,  Tentamen  theologiae  dogmaticae methodo 
scientifica  pertractatae ;  Bern.  1741-42.  IIIvol.  8vo. 
Ejusd,    Compendium  theologiae   dogmat.  et   moralis  ; 


140 

Francf.  1 754.  8vo.  Henr.  Guil.  Bernsau,  Theologia  dog-- 
mat.  meihodo  scientifica  pertractata;  Lips.  1755.  II  vol. 
8vo.  Joh.  Fred.  Stopfer.^  The  foundation  of  true  religion ; 
(in  German,)  Zurich  1746-53.  XII  Vol.  8vo.  Hersfeld. 
1756.  Ill  Vol.  4to.  Ejusd.  Institutiones  theologiae  po- 
lemicae  ;  Tuguri  1745-47.  V  vol.  Bvo. 
Jo.Laur,Mosliemii,  Elenienta  theologiae;  ed.2.Norimb.l764. 
II  vol.  8vo. 

Sec.  164.     Protestant  theology  in  countries  beyond 
Germany. 

In  England,  theological  controversies  were  carried  on, 
with  uncommon  vehemence,  and  being  connected  with 
political  discords,  produced  dreadful  ferments  in  the  pub- 
lic mind.  The  effects  of  this  excitement,  were  threefold. 
Some — (the  Deists)  rejected  Christianity  in  general,  and 
confined  themselves  to  mere  natural  religion.  Others 
were  disposed,  to  regard  Christianity  as  a  mere  matter  of 
feeling,  and  assumed  as  their  directory  an  internal  light — 
(the  Quakers).  Others  again,  had  the  conviction,  that 
the  creed  of  the  church  and  symbols  of  faith,  were  of  little 
consequence,  and  that  men  ought  to  hold  fast  only  the 
essential  and  the  practical  doctrines  of  Christianity — (the 
Latitudinarians).  The  toleration,  granted  towards  the 
close  of  the  seventeeth  century,  gave  these  parties  room 
for  freer  action,  and  the  friction  of  their  collisions  pro- 
duced clearer  views,  and  a  more  active  spirit  of  investi- 
gation. Yet  the  spirit  of  the  English  theologians,  finding 
less  satisfaction  in  elaborating  systems  of  theology, 
employed  itself,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  discussion 
of  particular  points,  or  in  ranging  at  large  on  theo- 
logical subjects,  with  at  least,  freedom  of  thought.  In 
Switzerland  also,  the  former  rigorous  orthodoxy  was 
relaxed  ;  and  at  Geneva  in  particular,  the  ancient  seat  of 
Calvinism,  James  Vernet  preached,  not  the  Calvinistic 
system,  but  only  the  simple  truths  of  Christianity.  These 
writings  of  foreign  divines,  were  read  in  Germany,  and 
were  there  translated.  The  works  also  of  Socinian  and 
Arminian  writers,  were  read  with  less  aversion,  than  for- 
merly. 


( 


OF   iDOGMATIC    HISTORY.  141 

Notices.  Anthony  Collins,  Discourse  on  free-thinking  ;  oc- 
casioned by  the  rise  and  growth  of  a  sect,  called  Free- 
Thinkers;  Lond.  1713.  8vo.  Phileleufheri  Lipsiensis 
(Richard  Bentley),  Remarks  upon  a  late  discourse  of  free- 
thinking  ;  1713.  (also  in  French,  ed.  8.  Amst.  1736.8vo.) 
Theologiae  verae  christianae  Apologia  ;  a  Roberto  Bar- 
claio;  Roterod.  1676.  4to.  (also  German,  1740.  8vo.) 
The  principles  and  practices  of  certain  moderate  divines 
abusively  called  Latitudinarians  ;  III  Parts;  Lond.  1671. 
8vo.  (^Arthur  Bury)  Latitudinarius  orlhodoxus  ;  Lond. 
1697.  12mo. 

Thomae  Burnet,  de  fide  et  officiis  christianorum,  Liber  pos- 
thumus  ;  Lond.  1727.  revised  and  enlarged,  by  W,  A, 
Teller;  Halle  1786.  8vo.  A  complete  body  of  divinity, 
by  Thorn.  Stackhouse ;  Lond.  1729.  (also  in  German  ;  by 
Fried,  EherL  Rambach;  Rostt)ck.  1755-64.  VII  vol. 
8vo.  The  far  more  important  works  on  particular  topics, 
belong  to  the  history  of  particular  doctrines. 

Instruction  chretienne  ;  p^r  Jaques  Vernet,  a  Geneve.  1754. 
V  tomes.  8vo.  (also  in  German,)  Berlin,  1 754-55. V  Parts, 
or  II  vol.  8vo. 

Sec.  165.     JVew  formation  of  the  Protestant  theology. 

Historians  of  it.  Prize  question  of  the  Directors  of  the 
Universal  Literary  Journal,  A.  D.  1788.  {GebL  Ulr. 
Brastberger^ s)  Narrative  and  examination  of  the  princi- 
pal changes,  made  in  the  learned  statements  of  dogmatic 
theology,  among  the  Protestants  of  Germany,  especially 
in  the  second  half  of  the  present  century  ;  (in  German,) 
Halle,  1790.  8vo.  Essay  of  a  historical  developement  of 
the  causes  and  occasions,  which  have  produced  a  new 
state  of  protestant  dogmatics  ;  (German,)  in  Stdudlin^s 
Contributions  to  the  philosophy  and  history  of  religion. 
Vol.  IV.  p.  1—50.  Lubeck,  1798.  Practical  history  of 
theology  and  religion,m  the  Protestant  church, during  the 
second  half  of  the  1 8th  century  ;  (in  German,)  by  J.  Aug. 
Tittmann.  Vol.  I.  Breslau  1805.  8vo.  The  illumination 
of  modern  divines,  in  christian  theology,  from  A.D.  1760, 
to  A.  D.  1805;  (in  German;  by  Fuhrinann,)  Yo).  L 
Lips.  1807.  8vo. 

13* 


142 

The  progress  of  human  science,  of  biblical  criticism 
and  hermeneutics,  and  of  historical  theology,  and  the  in- 
creased philosophical  industry  of  divines,  who  cast  off  the 
shackles  of  the  church  creed,  being  favored  by  the  in- 
creased freedom  of  the  pulpit  and  the  press ;  led  on  to 
a  very  considerable  change  in  dogmatic  theology,  which 
at  first,  under  /.  Aug,  Ernesti,  Dav.  Heilmann,  and  J, 
Dav.  Michaelis,  extended  only  to  its  form  and  unessen- 
tial definitions(A),  but  soon  after,  affected  the  substance 
itself.  W.  Abr,  Teller.  GotthilfSam.  Steinbart,  J,  Aug. 
Eberhard,  and  /.  S.  Semler,  were  especially  active,  in 
producing  this  change(B).  They  were  aided,  by  the  less 
learned  and  discreet,  Jo/BernLBasedow,  and  Charles  Fr. 
Bahrdi[C) ;  and  the  German  Universal  Library  (Allge- 
meine  deutsche  Bibliothek)  cooperated  powerfully,  to 
bring  the  old  system  under  ridicule,  and  open  the  way 
for  the  new  views.  Against  these  assauhs,  however,  tlie 
established  theology  found  many  defenders(D).  Without 
joining  either  party,  altogether,  Jo.  Christ.  Doederlein, 
and  Sam.  Fred.  JVath.  Morus,  found  their  theological 
treatises  receiving  much  approbation(E).  Biblical  the- 
ology, likewise  had  its  writers(F) ;  and  in  the  popular 
statement  of  religious  doctrines,  Fred,  Wilh.  Jerusalem 
stood  conspicuous(G). 

Notices.  A.  Jo.  Dav.  Michaelis,  Compendium  tlieologiae 
doomat.  Gottmg.  1760:  and  in  German,  Gott.  1784. 
Jo.  Dav.  Heiimanni,  Compendium  tlieol.  dojimat.  Gott. 
1761,  1774.  Em.  Jac.  Danovii,  Theolo^iae  dograat.  In- 
stitutio;  Jenae  1772,  1776.  Jo.  Gottl  Tollner,  Mis- 
cellaneous papers  ;  (in  German,)  Francf.  on  Oder,  1767- 
70.  II.  vol.  Ejusd,  Theolos^ical  Inquiries  ;  (in  German,) 
Vol.  I.  and  Vol.11.  P.  I.  Riga  1772-74.  {Ejnsd.  Sys- 
tem of  Dogmatic  theology  ;  (in  German,)  II.  Vol.  Nu- 
renb.  1775.) 
B.  W.  A.  Teller's  Elements  of  the  Christian  faith  ;  (in 
German,)  1764.  8vo.  Jo,  Fred  Gruneri,  Institutt.  theol. 
dogmat.  Libri  III.;  Halae  1777.  Ejusd.  Practical  In- 
troduction to  the  religion  of  the  H.  Script,  (in  German,) 
Halle  1773.  Jo.  Aug.  Eberhard,  New  apology  of  So- 
crates, and  on  the  salvation  of  the  Heathen  ;  (German,) 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY,  14S 

Berlin  1772.  new  ed.  1778.  II.  vol.  8vo.  Godfr.  Sam. 
SteinharVs  System  of  pure  philosophy,  or  the  christian 
doctrine  of  salvation  ;  (German,)  Ziillich.  1778.  ed.  3. 
1786.  (J.  A.  Sixt,  Examination  of  the  so  called  System 
of  pure  Philosophy  ;  (German,)  Altd.  and  Nurenb.  1779 
~80.  II  Parts.  The  philosophical  Christianity  of  Coun- 
sellor Steinbart,  freely  investigated,  by  a  practical  theolo- 
gian ;  (German,)  Lips.  1792.)  Ejusd.  Philosophical 
conversations,  for  a  fuller  elucidation  of  the  doctrine  of 
salvation  ;  (German,)  Ziill.  1781-86.  Ill  Parts.  J,  S. 
Semleri,  Institutio  ad  doctrinam  christ.  liberaliter  discen- 
dam  ;  Halae  1774.  Ejusd.  Essay  of  a  more  liberal 
manner  of  teaching  theology  ;  for  the  elucidation  and  con- 
firmation of  his  Latin  work  ;  (German,)  Halle  1777, 8vo. 
(J.  A.  Starck,)  Free  remarks  on  Christianity  ;  (Germ.) 
ed.  2.  Berl.  1782.  (The  Free  remarks  on  Christianity, 
examined:  by  Tob,  Gottf.  Hegel maier ;  Tub.  1781-82. 
in  Vol.  8vo.)  Sam.  Mursinna^  Compendium  theologiae 
dogmat.  Halae    1777. 

C.  C  F.  Bahrdtf  Essay  of  a  biblical  System  of  dogmat- 
ics ;  (Germ.)  Gotha  and  Lips.  1769 — 70.  IL  Vol.  8vo. 
— Ejusd.  Letters  on  systematic  theology  ;  (Germ.)  Erf 
1770.  II.  vol.  8vo. — Ejusd.  Systema  theologiae  Luthe- 
ranae  orthodoxum,  cum  brevi  notatione  dissentientium. 
Halae  1785.  8vo. — J.  Bernh.  Basedow^  Philalethia. 
New  views  taken  of  the  truths  and  the  religion  of  reason, 
as  far  as  the  boundaries  of  credible  revelation  ;  (Ger- 
man,) Altona  1764,  II.  vol.  8vo. — !i]ssay  of  a  caridid  sys- 
tem of  theology,  according  to  private  judgments  ;  (Ger- 
man,) Berlin  1766. — Bei'nherd  of  Nordalbingden,  Legacy 
for  some  persons  ;  (German,)  Dessau  1774. 

D.  Jo,  Benj.  Corpzov,  Liber  doctrinalis  theologiae  purio- 
ris ;  Brunsw.  1767. — Chr,  W.  Fr,  Walchii.  Breviarum 
theologiae  dogmat.  Got.  1775. — Ge.  Fred.  Seller,  Theo- 
logia  dogmat.  polemica  ;  Erlang.  1774.  ed.  3.  1789. — Jo. 
Pet.  Miller,  Theol.  dogmat.  Compendium  ;  Lips.  1786, 
Eberh.  Dan.  Stosch,  introductio  in  theol.  dogmat.  Francf. 
ad  Viadr.  1778.  Ejusd.  Institutiones  theol.  dogmat.  ibid. 
1779.  Sam,  Endemanni,  Institutiones  theol.  dogmat. 
Hanov.  1777.  II.  Vol.  8vo.  Ejusd.  Compendium  theol. 
dogmat.  Francf.  1782.  ed.  2.  cura  J.  A.  Arnoldi;  Han. 
1790. 


144 

E.  Jo  Christoph.  Doederlein,  Institutio  theologi  christian! 
in  capitibus  reliorjonis  theorelicis,  temporibus  nostris  ac- 
comrnodata;  xiltorf.  1780.  ed.  6ta  1799.  II.Vol.  8vo.— 
Ejusd.  Summa  instilutionis  &c.  Norirnb.  1782. — Ejusd. 
Religious  Instruction  ;  (German,)  Vol.  I — IV.  and  con- 
tinuation, by  G.  Ch.  Junge,  Vol.  V — XII.  Altorf.  and 
Nurenb.  1783—1803.  8vo.— S?.  F,  N,  Mori,  Epitome 
theologiae  christianae  ;  Lips.  1789.  ed.  4.  1799. — Ejusd. 
Commentarius  exeget.  histor.  in  snara  theol.  christ. 
Epitomen ;  ed.  C.  A.  Hempel,  Lips.  1797 — 98.  II.Vol. 
8vo. 

F.  Gottk.  Traugott  Zachariae,  Biblical  Theology ;  (in 
German,)  Gott.  and  Kiel.  1771 — 75.  IV  Vol.  continued 
by  Vollhroth,  ed.  3.  1786.  V.  Vol.  8vo.— T^.  Fred.  Huf- 
nageVs  Manual  of  biblical  theology  ;  (in  German,)  vol. 

1.  and  vol.  II.  P.  I.  Erlang.  1785— 89.— CAr.  F.  Am- 
moji's  Bibliral  Theology;  (German,)  Erlang.   1792.  ed. 

2.  1801—2.  in.  Vol.  8vo.— The  spirit  of  original  Christ- 
ianity ;  (in  German,)  by  J.  A,  Eberhard ;  Halle  1807 — 
8.  ill.  Vol.  8vo. 

G.  Jo.  ISred.  W.  JerusalerrCs  Reflections  on  the  princi- 
pal truths  of  religion  ;  (in  German,)  vol.  I.  Brunsw. 
1768.  vol.  II.  P.  I— IV.  1772—79.  The  Parts  of  con- 
tinuation, in  his  posthumous  writings  ;  Brunsw.  1692 — 
93.  IV.  Vol.  8vo. — Godfr.  Less,  Theory  of  the  christian 
religion,  or  Essay  of  a  practical  dogmatic  ;  (in  German,) 
Getting. 1779.  also,  under  the  title  of  Manual,  of  the  the- 
ory of  Christianity,  for  people  of  education;  ed.  3.  1789. 
— /.  A.  Hermes,  Manual  of  religion  ;  (in  German,)  5th 
ed.  improved  ;  Berlin  1797.  8vo. — To  quiet  my  soul, 
what  must  I  believe  ?  what  can  I  expect,  among  the 
complicated  opinions  of  the  learned  ? — answered  by  a 
feeble  old  man,  on  the  borders  of  the  grave  (J.  Fr.  Ja- 
cohi)  ;  (in  German,)  Hanov.  1790. — Result  of  my  more 
than  50  year's  reflection  on  the  doctrine  of  Christ ;  (in 
German,  by  Dan.  Hen.  Purgold,)  ed.  2.  Lips.  1788. — 
Jo.  Jac.  GrieshacWs  Introduction  to  the  study  of  popular 
dogmatics;  (in  German,)  Jena  1779.  ed.  4.  1789. — 
A.  H.  Niemeier^s  Popular  and  practical  theology ;  (in 
German,)  Ilalle  1792.  ed.  5.  \^m.— Ejusd.  Letters  to 
christian  Ministers  ;  (in  German,)  ed.  2.  1803. 


or    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  14^ 

Sec.  166.     Influence  of  the  Kantean  philosophy. 

History  of  it.  [Fliigge,)  Essay  of  a  historic  and  critical 
representation  of  the  effects  of  the  Kantean  philosophy, 
thus  far,  on  all  the  branches  of  scientific  and  practical 
theology  ;  (in  German,)  Hanov.  1796-98.  II  vol.  8vo. 
The  state  of  dogmatics,  in  the  Lutheran  church,  since  the 
time  of  Morus ;  (in  German,)  by  Aug.  Bas,  Manitius  ; 
Witemb.  1806.  8vo. 

The  Kantean  philosphy,  which  shook  the  foundations 
of  the  previous  religious  systems,  and  aimed  to  establish 
faith  in  supersensible  things,  directly  on  practical  reason; 
was  commended, by  many  divines, as  the  surest  means  of 
securing  the  christian  doctrines,  against  the  assaults  of 
unbelief,  and  the  mazes  of  superstition.  But  it  was  soon 
felt,  that  its  union  with  Christianity,  was  compulsory.  Bib- 
lical theology,  however,  was  not  neglected  ;  and  greater 
attention  than  ever,  was  paid  to  the  history  and  literature 
of  theology.  The  great  dissimilarity  in  the  first  princi- 
ples, assumed  by  the  theologians,  became  more  and  more 
visible.  Some  divines  endeavored,  to  defend  the  leading 
points  of  the  old  theology.  Others  followed  an  eclectic 
rationalism  ;  to  which  they  either  accommodated  the 
doctrines  of  the  bible,  or  they  exhibited  the  latter,  along 
with  the  principles  of  the  former,  without  concealing  the 
discordance  between  them.  The  philosophy  of  Schel- 
ling  also,  which  identified  the  creation  with  the  Creator, 
was  applied  to  the  erection  of  new  systems  of  dogmatics. 
The  changes  in  the  German  theology,  likewise,  produced 
some  influence  on  the  churches  of  Holland. 

Notices.  Religion  within  the  boundaries  of  pure  rea- 
son ;  (in  German,)  by  Imman.  Kant;  Konigsb.  1794. — 
C  Fr.  Stdudlin^s  Thoughts  for  a  critique  upon  the  sys^ 
tem  of  the  christian  religion  ;  (German,)  Got.  1791, 
8vo.' — On  the  value  of  the  critical  philosophy,  especially 
in  a  religious  and  moral  view,  and  the  use  and  abuse  of 
it,  in  the  theological  sciences  ;  (German,)  in  Stdudlin^s 
Contributions  to  the  history  and  philosophy  of  religion  ; 
Tol  III,   IV.  v.--/.  Henr.  Tieftrunky  Estimate  of  the.- 


146  mdenscher's  elements 

Protestant  system  of  Christianity,  according  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  religious  criticism  ;  (German,)  Berlin  1791-96. 
HI  vol,  8vo. — Eju^d,  Dilucidationes  ad  theoreticam  re- 
ligionis  christ.  partem;  Berlin  1793.  II  vol. — Chr,  Fred, 
Amnion's  Sketch  of  a  scientific  work  on  practical  theol- 
ogy :  (in  German,)  vol.  I.  P.  I,  II.  Gotting.  1798. — J. 
W,  Schmid,  On  the  nature  of  the  christian  religion,  and 
the  proper  mode  of  treating  it,  both  as  instruction  for 
mankind,  and  as  a  science  ;  (in  German,)  Jena  1797. 
Bvo. 

On  the  inconsistency  of  the  dogmatic  system,  to  which 
the  high  court-preacher  Reinhard  gives  assent;  and  the 
consistency  of  the  rationalism,  that  admits  a  revelation  ; 
(in  German,)  1811.  8vo. 

JLenchte  (/.  G.  S,)  Critique  of  the  latest  inquiries  re- 
specting rationalism  and  belief  in  revelation  ;  (in  Germ.) 
Lips.  1812.  8vo. 

Letters  on  rationalism :  Designed  to  correct  the  fluc- 
tuating and  dubious  decisions,  passed  on  that  subject,  in 
the  recent  disputes  about  consistency  ;  (in  German,) 
Aachen  (Rastatt).  1813.   8vo. 

Tiitmann  (J.  A.)  On  Supranaturalism,  Rationalism, 
and  Atheism  ;  (in  German,)  Lips.  1816.  Bvo. — L.  A. 
Kaehler,  Supernaturalism  and  Rationalism,  in  their  com- 
mon origin,  their  disagreement,  and  ultimate  unity,  A 
word  for  satisfying  all  those, who  are  undecided,  whether 
they  should  believe  in  order  to  know,  or  know  in  order 
to  believe  ;  (in  German,)  Lips.  1818.  Bvo. 

(^Ge.  Lor»  Bauer's)  Theology  of  the  Old  Testament,  or 
Summary  of  the  religious  ideas  of  the  Hebrews ;  (in 
German.)  Lips.  1796.  \80\.~Ejusd.  Biblical  theology 
of  the  New  Testament;  (in  German,)  Lips.  1800,  1802. 
IV  vol. — Ejusd.  Breviarium  theologiae  biblicae  ;  Lips. 
\S03.-^Kaiser,  {G.  P.  C.)  Biblical  theology,  or  Juda- 
ism and  Christianity  ;  (in  German,)  Erlang.  1813-14.  II 
vol.  Bvo.T— Commentarii  histor.  decretorum  religionis 
christiane  et  formulae  Lutheriae ;  scripsit  Ch.  Dan.  Beck; 
Lips.  1801.  Bvo. — C.  G,  Breftschneiders  Essay  of  a  sys- 
tematic developement  of  all  the  opinions  advanced  in 
dogmatics,   according  to  the  symbolical   books   of  the 


1 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  147 

evangelical  Lutheran  church  ;  (in  Gernnan,)  Lips.  1805. 
improved  ed.  1819.  8vo. 
Gottl.  Chr.  Storr,  Doctrinae  christian  a  e  pars  theore- 
tica;  Stutti^.  1793. — Ejusd.  Elements  of  christian  theo- 
logy; in  German  from  the  Latin,  with  additions,  by  C,C. 
Flatt.  Stuttg.  1803.  2d  improved  and  enlarged  ed.  vol. 
I.  18l3.  8vo.  (Also  made  English,  by  S,  S.  Schmucker ; 
Andover  1826.  II  vol.  8vo.) — Fr.  V,  Reinhard,  Lec- 
tures on  dogmatics,  with  liteiary  additions  ;  (in  German,) 
published  by  Imm.  Berger  \  Amberg  and  Sulzb.  1801. 
ed.  2.  1806;  and  with  new  literary  additions,  by  jff.  A, 
Schott ;  4th  improved  ed.  1818.  8vo. — Epitome  theolo- 
giae  Christ,  e  Reinhardi  acroasibus  descripta  ;  a  P.  Ge. 
Chr.  Hopfner ;  Lips.  1805. — Magazine  for  christian 
dogmatics  and  moral  theology  ;  (in  German,)  published 
by  J.  Fr.  Flatt,  and  contmued  (since  Pt.  9,)  by  Fred. 
Gottl.  Silskind;  Tub.  1796  &c.  XIV  Parts.  8vo.--Sys- 
tem  of  christian  dogmatics,  laid  down  according  to  the 
theolo^v  of  the  Lutheran  church  ;  (in  German,)  by  Jo. 
Chr.  iV.  Augusti;  Lips.  1809. 

H.   A.  Schott,    Epitome    theologiae   christianae  dogmati- 

cae  ;  Lips.  18 i  I.  8vo. 
The  religious   instructions  of  the  Bible,   considered    with  ^ 

reference  to  our  spiritual  wants  ;  (in  German,)  by  J.  L. 

Ewald;  Stuttg.  and  Tub.  1812.  II  vol.  8vo. 
Manual   of   the  theology  of  the  evang.  Lutheran  church ; 

(in  German,)  by  Dr.  C  G.  Breitschneider ;  Lips.  1814- 

18.  II  vol.  8vo. 

Jo.  Chr.  Rud.  Eckermann,  Compendium  theologiae 
chrivSt.  theoret.  biblico-historicae  ;  ed.  2.  Altonae  1792. 
— Ejusd.  Manual  for  the  systematic  study  of  the  chris- 
tian faith  ;  (in  German,)  Altona  1801--3.  lY  vol.  8vo. — 
JGJw^cZ.  Theological  contributions;  (Germ.)  Altona  1791- 
97.  VI  vol. — Hen.  Ph.  Con.  Henke,  Linearnenta  institutt. 
fidei  Christ,  historico-criticarum;  Helmst.  1793.  ed.2. 1795. 
Ejusd.  Mag.  for  religious  philosophy,  exegesis,  and  church 
hivStory  ;  (in  German,)  Helmst.  1794  &c.  VI  vol. — 
Ejusd.  New  Magazin  ;  (German).  Helmst.  1797  &.c. 
VI  vol. — Ejusd.  Museum  for  religious  science,  in  all  its 
extent;  (in  German,)   Magd.   1803-07.  Ill  vol.  8vo.— 


148 

Critique  of  the  ancient  and  modern  doctrines  of  the 
christian  church;  (in   German,)  by  G.  C.  Cannabich ; 
Zerbst  and    Lips.    1798    ed.  3.    1805,— Go^^Z.    Denker 
(Sintenis),   Last  revision  of  the  faith  of  the  church  ;  (in 
German,)  1799.  8vOt — Char.  Lud.  Nitzsch,  De  revela- 
tione  rehgionis  externa  eademque  pubHca  ;    Lips.  1808. 
— The  foundation  of  theology  ;  (in  German,)    by  Gotil, 
Schlegel;  vol.1.  Riga    1806. 
Dogmatics   and    dogmatic   history  ;    (in   Geiman,)    by  C 
,  Fred.  Stdudling ;  Gott.  1799.11  vol. — Ejusd.  Elements 
of  dogmatics  and  dogmatic  history  ;  (in  German,)  ed.  2. 
< lotting.  1809. — 1.  Ern.  Christ,   Schmid's  Elements  of 
christian  dogmatics;  (in  German,)  Giess.  1800. — Ejusd. 
Christian  theology  ;  (in  German,)    Giess.  and   Darmst. 
1808. — Chr.  Fr.  Ammon,  Summa  theol.  christ.  Gotting. 
1803,  ed.  2,  1808,  ed.  3,  Lips.    1816,  'also  in  German, 
1805. — Ejusd.  Full  instruction  in  the  christian  faith,  de- 
signed for  the  friends  of  evangelical  truth  ;  (in  German,) 
vol.  I.   P.  I,  11.  Erlang.    1807,    1808.—/.    G.    Herder, 
Dogmatics  ;  collected  from  his  writings,  with  literary  and 
critical  notes  ;  (in  German,)  Jena  1805. 
Elements    of  christian  dogmatics,  presented  in  a  histori- 
cal developement  of  the  same  ;   (in  German,)  by  Dr.  W. 
.     M.  L.  De  Wefte ;  Berl  lQ\3-\6.   II  vol.    Qvo.-Ejusd. 
On  religion  and  theology  :   Elucidations  to   his  elements 
of  dogmatics  ;   (in  German,)  Berl.  1815.  8vo. 
Institutiones   theologiae    christ.    dogmaticae.     Scholis  suia 
scripsit,  addita  singulorora  dogmatum  historia  et  censura, 
J.  A.  L.  WegscJieider ;  ed.  2.  Halae,  1817.  8vo. 
Thologumena,    s.  Doctrinae  de  religione  christ.  ex  natu- 
ra  Dei  perspecta  capita  potiora,  scholis  dicavit  Car.  Daub; 
Heidelb.    1806. — Ejusd.    Introduction   to   the   study  of 
christian    dogmatics  ;  (in   German.)    Heidelb.    1810. — 
Fred.   Henr.    Christ.    Schwarz,  Sciagraphia  theologiae 
dogmaticae;  Heidelb.   1808. — Ejusd.  Christianity  con- 
sidered in   its   truth   and   divinity  ;   (in  German,)  vol.  I. 
Heidelb.  1808. — Ejusd.  Outline  of  Protestant    ecclesi- 
astical dogmatics  ;  ed.  2.  altered  and  done  into  German  ; 
Heidelb.  1816,  large  8vo. 
Pars    theoretica    religionis    christianae — in    compendium 
redegit;  Herm.  Muntinghe;  1800-1,  8 vo. 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  149 

Compendii  theologiae  clirist.  ordo  et  argnmentum  :  Pars 
tlieoretica.  Ad  usum  discipulorum ;  edidit  Jo,  van 
Voorst;  Lugd.  1808.  8vo. 

Christian  theology,  according  to  the  wants  of  the  pre- 
sent time  ;  (in  Dutch,)  hy  J.  H,  Regenhogen ;  Workum, 
1811.   8vo,     (very  lax  I) 

J,  A.  Lotze.  Monograrnmata  theologiae  theoreticae,  in 
scholae  suae  usum;  Harderov.  J817.  8vo. 

Sec.  167.  The  theology  of  other  churches. 
The  eptablished  doctrines  of  the  Catholic  church, 
are  professedly  unchangable  ;  and  can  therefore  admit 
of  no  essential  aherations.  And  yet  theology  was  taught 
with  some  peculiarities,  by  each  order  of  Monks  ;  and 
the  contest  between  the  Jansenists  and  Jesuits,  in  particu- 
lar, gave  the  Catholic  divines  much  employment.  For 
the  most  part,  the  old  scholastic  form  of  doctrine  con- 
tinued ;  yet  in  France,  from  about  the  seventeenth  cen- 
century,  attempts  were  made,  to  purge  away  many  of  the 
useless  subtilties  ;  and  Bossuet  endeavored,  to  make  its 
deviations  from  the  Protestant  views,  less  striking.  The 
free  remarks  of  Francis  de  Courayer,  on  improving  theo-. 
logy,  were  not  attended  to.  With  better  success,  the 
Catholic  divines  of  Germany,  in  modern  times,  have  be- 
gun to  treat  the  theology  of  their  church,  more  lucidly 
and  practically ;  and  in  this,  they  have  condescended  to 
make  use  of  the  writings  of  Protestants(A).  The  Greek 
church  has  had  no  dogmatic  writers,  except  Theophanes 
Procopowitsch  and  Platon(B).  Among  the  Unitarians 
or  Socinians  also,  a  few  works  on  dogmatics  have  ap- 
peared(C). 

Notices^  A.  Fran.  Suarez,  Commentatt.  et  dij?putatt.  in 
Summam  theologiae  Sti  Thomae  ;  Mogunt.  1619-29. 
XIX  vol.  Fol.  Jo.  Bapt.  du  Hameh  Theolocna  specu- 
lative et  practica,  juxta  SS.  Patrum  dogmata  pertracUata  ; 
Par.  1691.  Vll  vol.  8vo.  Exposition  de  la  foi  cathohque; 
par  Jaque  Ben,  Bossuet ;  Par.  1672.  15mo.  Theolo- 
gia  dogmal.  et  moralis,  auctore  Natal  AUxandro ;  Paris 

^    1703.    II.  vol.  Fol.     Antonii    Tournellh   Praelectiones 

I  14 


150  muenscher's  elements 

theologicae  ;  Paris  1725-30.  XVI  vol.  8vo.  Examen 
des  defauts  theologiques  ;  (par  F.  de  Courayer,)  Amst. 
1744.  I[  vol.  8vo.  Jo.  Laur.  Bertie  Theologia  histor. 
dogmat.  scholastica  ;  Vene^t.  1760,  &,c.  X  vol.  Fol.  And, 
abridged,  Bamb.  1773.  V  vol.  8vo.  Renati  Billuart, 
Summa  Sti  Thornae  hodiernis  academiarurn  moribus  ac- 
commodata  ;  Leod.  1746-51.  XIX  Tomi.  Bvo.  and  VVir- 
ceb.  1758.  Ill  vol.  Fol.  Ejusd,  Summa  summae  Sti 
Thornae  ;  s.  Compendium  iheologiae  ;  Leod.  1746.  VI 
vol.  8vo.  Petri  Mariae  Gazzaniga,  Praelectiones  theo- 
log.  ed.  3.  Viennae  1775.  IV  vol.  8vo.  Slmpert  Sch- 
warzhiiber,  Catholic  christian  manual  ;  (in  German,)  ed. 
3.  Salzb.  1791.  IV  vol.  8vo.  Steph.  Wiest,  Institutiones 
theologicae  ;  ed.  2.  Ingolst.  1788-89.  VI  vol.  8vo. 
Ejusd.  Institt.  theol.  dogmat.  ib.  1791.  II  vol.  ed.  2. 
Landshut  1817.  8vo.  Bened.  Stattler,  Theologiae  iheo- 
ret.  tractatus  ;  Eustad.  1776-79.  IV  Tomi.  Petri  Tam- 
hurini,  Praelectiones  in  acad.  Ticinensi  ;  Ticini  1787. 
8vo.  Manual  of  the  christian  religion  ;  (in  German,) 
by  Udcfons  ScJncarz  ;  ed.  2.  Bamb.  and  Wiirzb.  1797. 
Ill  vol.  8vo.  Engelberti  Kliipfel,  Instilutt.  theologiae 
dogmaticae,;  ed.  2.  Viennae  1802-3.  II  vol.  Bernh. 
Galura,  Latest  theology  of  Christianity  ;  (in  German,) 
Augsb.  1800-3.  V  vol.^  8vo.  ed.  2,  Augsb.  1818.  VI  vol. 
8vo.  Dobmayer^  (C.  D.  M.)  Systema  theol.  catholicae; 
Solisbaci  1813.  IV  Tomi  8vo.  cum  append.  Candid  re- 
presentation of  theology,  under  the  idea  of  the  King- 
dom of  heaven  ;  or  latest  catholic  dogmatics,  according 
to  the  wants  of  the  present  ajje  ;  (in  German,)  by  Dr. 
Fred.  Brenner;  Bamb.  and  Wiirzb.  1815-18.  III.  vol. 
8vo. 

B.  Theophanis  Procopoimtz,  Christiana  orthodoxa  theolo- 
gia ;^Regiomonti  1773--75.  V  vol.  8vo.  Platon's  Or- 
thodox doctrine,  or  short  summary  of  christian  theology  ; 
(in  German,)  Riga  1770  ;  (also,  English,  in  The  present 
stale  of  the  Greek  church  ;  by  Rob.  Pinkerton ;  New- 
York  1815.  l2mo.)  See  also,  Reflections  on  the  doc- 
trine and  the  spirit  of  the  orthodox  churches ;  (in  French,) 
by  Alexander  de  Stoundza;  and  thence  German,  by 
August,  von  Kotzebue ;  Lips.  1817.  8 vo. 

G.  Jo,  Volkelii,  de  vera  religione,  Libri  V  ;  quibus  praefixus 


i 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  181 

est  Jo.  Crellii  Tractatus  de  Deo  et  ejus  attributis  ;  Ra- 
cov.  163Q.  4to.  Sam.  Crelli,  Gogitationes  de  primo  et 
secundo  Adamo  ;  s.  de  ratione  salutis  per  ilium  amissae, 
per  hunc  recuperata  ;  Ainsl.  1700.  8vo.  (^Georgii  MaV' 
kos,)  Summa  universac  theologiae,  secundum  Uuitarios  ; 
Claudiop.  1777.  8vo,  See  Archive  for  ancient  and  mo- 
dern church  history  ;  (in  German,)  edited  by  C.  F.  Stdu- 
dlin  3im\  H.  C.  Tzschirner;  vol.  [.  P.I.  No.  3.  The 
author  of  this  piece,  was  supposed  to  be  George  Marhos ; 
but  it  was  published  from  a  manuscript  work  of  Michael 
Lombardsz  Abrahami,  who  was  superintendent  of  the  Uni- 
tarians in  Transylvania,  from  A.  D.  1737?  to  A.  D.  1758, 
See  the  above  named  Archive,  vol.  IV.  P.  I. 


PART   11. 

HISTORY  OF  PARTICULAR  DOCTRINES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE    FOUNDATION    OF    RELIGION    GENERALLY,     AND    ES- 
PECIALLY   OF    THE    CHRISTIAN    RELIGION. 

Historians.  J.  Alb.  Fabricii,  Delectus  argumentorum  et 
syllabus  scriptorum,  qui  veritatem  religionis  christ.  adver- 
sus  Atheos,  Epicureos,  Deistas  s.  Naturalistas,  Idolola- 
tras,  Judaeos  et  Muhammedanos,  asseiuerunt  ;  Hamb. 
1725.  4to.  An  appendix  thereto,  annexed  to  Jo»  Ant, 
Trinius,  Dictionary  of  Free-thinkers  ;  (in  German,) 
Lips.  &c.  1758.  8vo.  The  history  and  spirit  of  scepti- 
cism, especially  in  regard  to  morals  and  religion  ;  (in 
German,)  by  CL  Fr.  Stdudlin ;  Lips.  1794.  II  vol.  8vo. 

Sec.  168.  Doctrine  concerning  God. 
The  belief  of  a  God  was  commonly,  either  assumed,  or 
supported  on  the  old  and  well  known  grounds,  when  des 
Cartes  attempted  to  establish  it  with  new  arguments. 
Moreover  the  theologians  were  roused  from  their  inacti- 
vity, and  made  sensible  of  the  danger  in  which  the  foun- 


\ 


152  muenscher's  elements 

dation  of  their  system  stood,  by  the  efforts  of  two  persons, 
Thomas  Hobbes  (d.  1679)  seemed,  in  general,  to  under- 
mine religion ;  and  to  rank  the  Creator  among  sensalive 
beings.  Benedict  Spinoza  (d.  1677),  in  a  more  system- 
atic manner,  brought  forward  a  connected  and  self-con- 
sistent pantheism.  Among  the  numerous  writers,  who 
appeared  against  these  two  men,  the  most  distinguished 
were  UenryMorus  (d.  1687),  Ralph  Cudworth  (d.l688), 
and  Samael  Clarke  (d.  1729).  The  philosophy  of  John 
Locke,  which  deduced  all  knowledge  from  experience, 
and  which  met  great  approbation  in  England,  and  was 
received  also  in  France  ;  contrary  to  the  designs  of  its 
author,  was  so  appUied,  as  to  render  all  belief  of  super- 
sensible truths,  uncertain.  Christian  Wolf,  endeavored 
to  resist  infidelity,  by  a  more  acute  statement  of  the  ar- 
gument derived  from  the  principle  of  causation  ;  and 
Hermann  Sam,  Rtimarus  presented  the  argument  in  a 
more  intelligible  form,  and  defended  it  against  the  objec- 
tions of  Maupertuis.  Also  Moses  Mendelsohn  obtained  . 
high  commendation,  by  the  clearness  with  which  he  sta-  1 
ted  the  evidence  of  the  being  of  a  God  ;  and  during  the 
same  time,  essays  proving  the  being  of  God,  from  the 
necessity  of  a  first  cause,  became  more  numerous  than 
ever. 

Notices,  Thomas  Hobbes,  Elementa  philosopliica,  de  cive; 
Amstel.  1669.  12mo.  JEJw^rf.Levialhan  ;  London  1661. 
Bened.  Spinoza,  Tractatus  iheologico-pollticus  ;  Hamb. 
1670.  Bened.  Spinoza, O pp.  \)os{humii  \  Amst.  1677. 4to. 
Ejusd.  Opera;  cnravit  H  E.  G.  Paidus ;  Jenae  1802-3. 

II  vol.  8vo.  Ralph  CwcZwor/A,  Intellectual  system  of  the 
universe  ;  ex  Anglico  vertit  et  illustravit  J.  Law,  Mo- 
shemius ;  ed.  2.  Lugd.  Bat.  1773.  II  vol.  4to.  Sam, 
Clarke,  On  the  existence  and  attributes  of  God,  the 
duties  of  natural  religion,  and  the  truth  of  the  chris- 
tian religion  ;   (French,  from  the  English,)   Amst.   1766. 

III  vol.  8vo.  Herm.  Sam,  Beimarus,  Treatises  on  the 
principal  truths  of  natural  rehgion  ;  with  notes  by  J,  A, 
H.  Reimarus  ;  (in  German,)  ed.  6.  Hamb.  1791.  Mo- 
ses Mendelsohn's  Morning  hours  ;  (in  German,)  vol.  I. 


OF  dogmatk:  history.  16S 

Berlin  1785.  (Examination  of  Mendelsohn's  Morning 
ho<irs  ;  (in  German,)  hy  Lud.  Hen.  JaJwb ;  Lips.  1786.) 
W.  Der^am'tsPhysico-Theology  ;  German  from  the  Eng- 
lish. Hamb.  1764.  Ejusd.  Astro-Theology  ;  Hamb. 
1765.  B ernhar d  Nlemoetyt,  ConiemphUoDS  on  the  uni- 
verse ;  (Enghsh  from  the  Latin,  ill  vol.  Bvo.)  German 
from  the  Latin,  by  /.  A.  Segner;  Jena  1747-  4to.  Charles 
Bonnet,  Contemplations  of  nature  ;  (English  from  the 
French.)  German  from  the  French,  by  J.  Dan.  Titius ; 
ed.  4.  Lips.  1783. 

Sec.  169.  More  recent  history  of  this  doctrine. 
The  spread  of  a  superficial  French  philosophy,  which 
would  admit  nothing  for  true,  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
senses ;  appeared  to  be  even  more  dangerous  to  religious 
faith,  than  the  artful  scepticism,  with  which  David  Hume 
assailed  it.  Yet  the  last  occasioned  Immanuel  Kant,  to 
subject  the  whole  subject  of  our  knowledge  of  supersen- 
sible objects  to  a  severer  criticism ;  the  result  of  which 
was,  that  he  pronounced  all  theoretical  proof  of  the  be- 
ing of  God,  inadequate  ;  and  allowed  the  practical  evi- 
dence, to  be  the  only  valid  evidence.  Respecting  this 
decision  of  Kant,  the  suspicion  was  early  expressed,  that 
it  led,  or  might  lead,  to  atheism  ;  and  the  utterance  of 
this  suspicion  became  still  louder,  when  G,  Fichte  would 
not  admit  a  moral  government  of  the  world,  and  deni- 
ed the  existence  and  substance  of  God.  The  recent 
philosophy  of  Schelling,  extols  pantheism,  though  with 
some  modifications,  as  the  summit  of  all  divine  wisdom, 
and  looks  down  with  pity,  on  all  who  think  otherwise. 

Notices,  Systeme  de  la  nature,  ou  des  loix  du  monde  phy- 
sique et  du  monde  moral;  par.  M.  Mirahaud;  a  Lon- 
dres  1770.  U  vol.  8vo.  also  in  German,  1783.  (Obser- 
vations sur  le  livre  intitule  ;  Systeme  de  la  nature, "&c. 
par.  M.Jean  deCastillon;  Berlin  1771.  Reflexions 
philosophiques  sur  le  Systeme  &c.  par  M.  Holland;  a 
Neufchatel.  ed.  2.  1773.)  David  Hume,  Dialogues  con- 
cerning natural  religion;  Lond.  1779.  in  German,  with 
a  Dialogue  on  Atheism,  by  Em,  Plainer  j  Lips,  178K 
14* 


154 

8vo.  Immanuel  Kant,  Critique  on  pure  reason  ;  (in  Ger- 
man,) ed.  S.Riga  1790.  E;«.sd.  Critique  on  the  judg- 
ing power;  (in  German,)  Berlin  1793.  Ejusd.  Religion 
within  the  boundaries  of  mere  reason  ;  (m  German,) 
ed.  2.  Konigsb.  1794.  G.  Ch.  Sforr's  Remarks  on  the 
religious  doctrines  of  Kant ;  a  German  translation  by 
Silskind  ;  Tub.  1794.  (^Sckulze'* s)  Some  remarks  on 
Kant's  philosophichal  religious  doctrines ;  (in  German.) 
Kiel.  1795.  'J'heological  contributions;  (in  German,) 
by  J.  Ch,  Rud.  Eckermann;  vol.  III.  P.  HI.  and  vol.  IV. 
(C  F.  StdudUn,)  Prolusio,  qua  auctor  ipse  Philosophiae 
criticae  a  suspicione  Atheismi  vindicatur;  Gott.  1799. 
4to.  On  the  ground  of  our  belief  of  a  divine  government 
of  the  world  ;  by  Flchte ;  and  Developement  of  the  idea 
of  religi :)n  ;  by  Forberg  ;  (both  in  German,)  and  both  in 
Fichte's  and  Niethammer's  Philosoph.  Journal.  A.*D. 
1799.  vol.  IF.  p.  249  &c.  Fr,  W.  I.  Schclling's Bruno  ; 
or  on  the  divine,  and  the  natural,  first  principle  of  things; 
(in  German,")  Berl.  1802.  Ejusd.  Philosophy  and  reli- 
gion; (in  German,)  Tub.  1B04.  i^J/i/^d.  Philosophical 
writings  ;  (Germ.)  vol.  I.  l.andslmt  1809.  p.  399 — 611. 
Fr,  Henr,  Jacobi,  On  divine  things,  and  the  revelation  of 
them  ;  (in  German,)  Lips.  1811.  8vo.  Fr.  TF.  J.  Schcl- 
lingt  Monument  of  the  Scripture  concerning  divine  things, 
&,c  (in  German,)  Tubing.  1812.  8vo. — Against  Schel- 
ling  :  Fr,  Gottl,  Silskind,  Examination  of  Sclielling's  doc- 
trine, concerning  God,  creation  of  the  world,  freedom, 
moral  good  and  evil  ;  (in  German,)  Tubing.  1812.  8vo. 

The  more  ancient  proofs  of  the  being  of  God,  were 
also  brought  forward  again,  in  this  period  ;  in  the  follow- 
ing works : 

(L.  von  Crell,)  Pyrrho  and  Philalethes  ;  or,  does  Scepti- 
cism lead  to  truth  and  calm  decision  ?  (in  German,  edited 
by  Reinhard  ;  ed.  3.  Sulzbach  1813.  8vo.  J.  F.  AbeVs 
Detailed  statement  respecting  the  evidence  of  the  being: 
of  God;  (in  German,)  Heilbron  1817.  8vo.  J.F.Dah- 
lenhurg^  Philosophy  and  rehsion  of  nature  ;  (in  German,) 
Berlin  1797-98.  HI.  Vol.  8vo. 

Sec.  170.     Doctrine  of  Providence,  - 
The  opposers  of  religion  have  always  appealed  to  the 


OP    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  165 

existence  of  evil  and  misery  in  the  world,  as  a  ground 
for  questioning  the  wisdom,  goodness,  hoHness,  and  rec- 
titude of  the  government  of  the  world.  These  doubts, 
the  acute  Pete?-  Bayle  strengthened,  and  declared  to  be 
not  solvable  by  reason  ;  and  he  found  himself  not  satisfied 
with  the  arguments  for  the  contrary,  adduced  by  Jaque- 
lot,  William  King,  and  John  le  Clerc.  Hence  Godfrey 
Wm,  von  Leibnitz  was  induced  to  write  his  Theodicee ; 
which  was  received  with  peculiar  satisfaction,  and  used 
abundantly  by  the  theologians  and  philosophers  of  the 
Wolfian  school.  The  later  investigations  on  this  subject, 
appear  to  aim  less  at  justifying  the  existence  of  evil  in 
the  world,  than  at  denying  the  fact  that  evil  exists.  At 
length  Kant  endeavored  to  show,  that  no  attempt  to 
evince  the  justice  of  God  in  the  adiuission  of  evil,  could 
succeed. 

Notices.  P.  Bayle^  Dictionaire  historique  critique  ;  Art. 
Paulliciens,  Manicheens.  Reponse  aux  questions  d'un 
Provincial.  Jean  le  Clerc^  Defense  de  la  Providence, 
contre  les  Manicheens  ;  in  his  Parrhesiana  ;  T.  I.  p. 303. 
Wm,  King,  Deorigine  mali  ;  Dubl.  1702.  Bremae  1704. 
also  in  English,  about  1730.  Is,  Jaqvelot,  Conformitd 
de  la  foi  avec  la  raison  ;  Arnst.  1705.  12mo.  Essais  de 
Theodicee  sur  la  bonte  de  Dieu,  la  liberte  de  Thomrne,  et 
Torigine  du  mal;  par  ilf.  Leibnitz  ;Amst.  1710.8vo.  1734. 

II  vol,  ovo.  in  German,  by  Gottsciied,  1744.  8vo.  Ge. 
Bernh.  BiJfinger,  de  oiigine  et  permissione  mali ;  Tub 
1724.  On  the  Origin  and  design  of  evil  ;  (in  German,  by 
Villaume,)  Lips.  1784-87.  Ill  Vol.  Adam  Weishaupi, 
Apology  for  disagreeables  and  evils ;  (in  German,) 
Francf.  and  Lips.  1790.  II  vol.  J.  G,  C.  Werdermann, 
New  attempt  of  a  Theodicee  ;  (in  German,)  Lips.  1784. 

III  vol.  Essay  of  a  history  of  opinions  respecting  fate 
and  human  freedom  ;  Lips.  1793.  On  the  permission  of 
evil  ;  in  (Junge's)  Philosoph.  and  theological  papers  ; 
Vol.  I.  p.  35  —152,  On  the  failure  of  all  philosophical 
attempts  in  Theodicee  ;  (in  German,)  hy  Imm,  Kant;  in 
his  Miscell.  writings,  vol.  III.  p.*  145  &c. 


156  muenscher's  elements 

Sec.   171.     Immortality  of  the  soul. 

History,  Essay  of  a  historical  and  critical  survey  of  the 
doctrines  and  opinions  of  our  principal  modern  piiiloso- 
phers,  concerning  the  immortality  of  the  soul ;  (in  Ger- 
man,) Lips.  1796.  8vo. 

In  opposition  to  the  materialism,  which  Hobbes  and 
others  set  up,  des  Cartes  conceived  more  distinctly  the 
idea,  that  the  soul  was  a  simple  and  purely  spiritual  sub- 
stance. John  Locke,  had  let  drop  the  thought,  that  God 
was  able,  to  impart  the  power  of  thinking,  to  a  material 
body.  This  thought  was  eagerly  seized,  by  some  Eng- 
lish and  French  writers,  in  order  to  declare  man  a  mere 
machine,  who  at  death  would  be  completely  destroyed. 
Julius  Offrey  de  la  Mettrie  advanced  these  views,  the 
most  boldly.  The  Wolfian  philosophy  furnished  argu- 
ments, both  for  the  immateriality  and  immortality  of  the 
soul ;  but  the  Kantean  philosophy,  left  the  first  problema- 
tical, and  rested  the  last  solely  on  moral  grounds.  Also 
the  doctrine  of  immortality,  in  a  comfortless  form,  as  a 
protracted  existence,  without  consciousness  and  person- 
ality ;   met  with  friends  and  advocates. 

Notices.  La  Mettrie,  L'homme  machine;  a  Leiden  1748. 
12mo.  L'homme  plante  ;  a  Potsdam  1748.  12mo.  Jo, 
Gust.  Rcinbeck,  Philosophical  thoughts  on  the  rational 
soul  and  its  immortality;  (in  German,)  Berlin  1739. 
GottL  Is.  Canz,  Convincing  proof  of  the  immoitality  of 
the  sou! ;  (in  Germ.)  Tub.  1744.  [Geo.  Fred.  Meiers, 
Thoughts  on  the  state  of  the  soul  afler  death  ;  (in  Geim.) 
Halle  1746.  8vo.)  Mos.  Mendelsohn' sV\mii(\on  ;  (Ger- 
man,) ed.  4.  Berl.  1776.  (C.  Spazier,  Antiphaedon,  or 
examination  of  some  principal  arguments  for  the  simpli- 
city and  immoitality  of  the  soul  ;  (German,)  Lips.  1785.) 
Ahr.  Gotth.  Kastner,  Elucidation  of  an  argument  for  the 
immortality  of  the  soul  ;  (German,)  Gotting.  1767. 
Isaac  von  Pinto,  Pith  of  the  argument  against  the  mate- 
rialists ;  with  notes  by  J.  C.  E.  Miimler  ;  (in  German,) 
Helmst.  1778.  Joh.  Fred.  Hdseler^  Julius,  or,  on  the 
immortality  of  the  soul ;  (in  Germ.)  ed.  2.  Brunsw.  1794.. 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  15*T 

L.  H.  JaJcohf  Evidence  of  immortality,  from  the  idea  of 
duty  ^  (German,)  ed.  2.  Ziillich.  1794.  (Examination 
of  the  proof  proposed  by  Professor  Jacob  ;  (in  German.) 
Lips.  1793.)  Elpizon,  or,  on  my  continuing  to  be,  after 
death;  (in  German;  by  C.  F.  Slntenis  ;)  ed.  2.  Lips. 
1804-5.  Ill  vol.  8vo.  Euthanasia;  three  dialogues  on 
the  life  after  death  ;  (in  German,)  by  C.  M.  Wieland^ 
Lips.  1805.  8vo. 

Sec.  172.     Belief  in  Revelation, 

After  Ludovicus  Vives  and  Philip  de  Mornay,  Hugo 
Grotius  holds  a  distinguished  place,  among  the  defend- 
ers of  christianity(A).  The  distinction  between  natural 
and  revealed  religion,  was  contested  by  the  Socinians ; 
who  maintained,  that  all  religious  doctrines  must  be  com- 
prehensible, by  reason,  but  that  all  become  known  to  us, 
only  by  revelation.  In  these  principles,  they  were  fol- 
lowed by  Gruner  and  Basedow.  The  earlier  theologians 
placed  the  use  of  reason  very  low ;  and  in  this,  they  were 
preceded  by  Lutherh  severe  opinion.  On  the  contrary, 
the  English  deists(B)  took  opposite  ground;  exalted  the 
value  of  the  religion  of  reason,  and  thence  inferred,  either 
that  Christianity  was  not  needed,  and  w^as  superfluous;  or 
that,  being  contrary  to  reason,  it  was  to  be  rejected.  To 
meet  these  arguments(C),  the  English  apologists  asserted 
the  coincidence  of  the  christian  doctrines  with  the  re- 
ligion of  reason ;  and  thence  inferred  the  truth  of  the  for- 
mer. Others,  however,  chose  to  found  this  truth,  on  the 
weakness  and  insufficiency  of  reason.  Leibnitz  endea- 
vored to  defend  the  coincidence  of  faith  and  reason, 
against  BayWs  objections ;  and  in  accordance  with  the 
Wolfian  principles,  the  necessity  of  a  revelation,  and  the 
marks  of  a  real  one,  were  unfolded.  Some  theologians, 
however,  treading  in  Vernefs  steps,  avowed  only  the 
desirableness  and  usefulness  of  a  revelation.  In  con- 
futation of  the  Jews  and  the  Mohammedans,  numerous 
pieces  were  written  ;  among  which,  only  Limhorchh  Con- 
ference with  Orobio,  deserves  to  be  noticed(D).  For  a 
controversy  with  Pagans,  occasion   did  not  occur ;  yet 


158  MnENSCHER's    ELEMENTS 

learned  inquiries  respecting  their  religion,  were  under- 
taken(E). 

Notices.  A.  Jo.  Franc.  Pici  MirandulL  Examen  vanitatis 
doctrinae  gentium  et  veritatis  christianae  disciplinae,  Lib. 
VI;  Mirand.  1520.  J,  Lud.  Vives,  de  veritate  fidei 
christianae,  Libri  V  ;  Basil  1544.  8vo.  and  in  his  0pp. 
Basil  1555.  T.  II.  p.  284  &c.  Philippi  Mornaei,  de 
veritate  religionis  Christ.  Liber  ;  Antw.  1580.  Hvgonis 
Grotii,  de  veritate  rehgionis  christ.  Libri  IV  ;  Paris  1640. 
et  ahbi ;  exed.  Koecheri,  Halae  1734.  II.  vol.  8vo. 

B.  Edwardi  Herbert  de  Cherbvry,  de  veritate  prout  distin- 
guitur  a  revelatione,  a  verisimili,  a  possibili  et  falso  ; 
Lond.  1645,  {Charles  Blount,)  Religio  Laici ;  1683. 
Oracles  of  reason  ;  1693.  John  Toland,  Christianity 
not  mysterious  ;  Lond.  1696.  Adeisidaemon  ;  s.  Titus 
Livius  a  superstitione  vindicatus;  Hagae  Com.  1709. 
Nazarenus  ;  Lond.  1718.  Patheisticon  Cosmop.  1720. 
Matthew  Tindal,  Christianity  as  old  as  the  creation  ; 
Lond.  1733.  and  German,  with  Jac.  JPo^^er'^  Confuta- 
tion ;  Francf.  1741.  II  vol.  8vo.  The  moral  philoso- 
pher; hy  Thomas  Morgan ;  Lond.  1737-40.  Ill  vol.8vo. 
Christianity  not  founded  on  argument,  and  the  true  prin- 
ciple of  the  gospel  evidence  assigned  ;  Lond.  1742. 
TAoTmi*  CAi/ftft,  Posthumous  works  ;  Lond.  1748.  The 
philosophical  works  of  Henry  St.  John,  Lord  Viscount 
Bolinghroke ;  Lond.  1754.  V  vol.  4to.  John  Lelandy 
View  of  the  principal  deistic  writers;  (in  German,)  Ha- 
nov.  1755-56.  Ill  vol.  La  vie  de  Mahomed  ;  par  Henri 
de  Boulainvilliers ;  A  Londres  1730.  Letters  sur  la  re- 
ligion essenlielle  a  I'homme  distingu^e  de  ce,  qui  n'en 
qu'accessoire;  {pv.r  31arie  Huber ;)  Amst.  1738.  II  vol. 
Svo.  3Iarie  Arouet  de  Voltaire,  L'evangile  du  jour;  la 
philosophic  de  I'histoire  ;  dictionare  pjjilosophique  porta- 
tif,  &c.  in  his  Works;  Gotha  1784.  LXXF  vol.  The 
Encyclopaedists  &c. 

C  Ja.  Abbadie,  Traite  de  la  verity  de  la  religion  chre- 
tienne  ;  Roterod.  1692.  II  vol.  8vo.  a  la  Haye  1763.  Ill 
vol.  8vo.  and  in  English,  I  vol.  12mo.  J.  Locke,  The 
reasonableness  of  Christianity;  Lon.  1693,  1703.  French; 
Amst.  1731.  II  vol.  8vo.     A  defense  of  revealed  religion; 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY,  159 

by  J.  Conyheare;  Lond.  1732.  and  German;  Berlin 
1759.  The  strength  and  weakness  of  human  reason  ;  by 
Isaac  Watts;  Lond.  1736,  and  German;  ed.  2.  Halle 
1755.  The  advantages  and  necessity  of  the  christian  re- 
ligion, shown  from  the  state  of  religion  in  the  ancient  hea- 
heathen  world;  by  John  Leland ;  Lond.  1764.  II  voL 
4to.  and  in  German,  abridged,  vol.  1.  Gotha  1769.  8vo, 
Eusebius  ;  or,  the  true  Christian's  defense  ;  by  /.  Chap- 
man ;  Lond.  1739.  II.  vol,  8vo.  and  German;  by  Stef- 
fens;  Hamb.  1759.11vol.  8vo.  George  Benson^  Rea- 
sonableness of  the  christian  religion  ;  Lond,  1743.  and 
German;  by  /.  Pet.  Bamberger',  Halle  1763.  The 
analogy  of  rehgion  natural  and  revealed,  to  the  constitu- 
tion and  course  of  nature;  by  Joseph  Butler;  ed  4» 
Lond.  1750.  and  German  ;  ed.  2.  Tub.  1779.  8vo.  A 
view  of  the  internal  evidences  of  the  Christian  religion  ; 
by  Soame  Jenyns ;  Lond.  1776.  German  ;  by  Vollhroth\ 
Gott.  1776.  8vo.  A  view  of  the  evidences  of  Christian- 
ity, in  three  Parts  ;  hy  William  Paley;  Lond.  1795.  II 
vol.  8vo.  and  German  ;  Lips.  1797.  11  vol.  8vo. 

Blaise  Pascal,  Pensees  sur  la  religion ;  Paris  1669. 
12mo.  Petri  Dan.  Huetii,  Demonstratio  evangelica ; 
Paris  1690.  Fol.  Amst.  1694.  4to.  Ejusd.  Quaestiones 
Alnetanae  de  concordia  rationis  et  fidei — cum  ejusdem 
Commentariisde  rebus  ad  eum  pertinentibus  ;  Lips.  17  19. 
4to.  Traite  de  la  verite  de  la  religion  chretienne  tire  en 
partie  du  Latin  de  M.  Jean  Alfonse  Turretin;  par  Jaques 
Vernet,  a  Geneve  1730-46.  Vll  vol.  8vo.  La  religion 
chretienne  prouvee  par  des  faits  par  I'Abbe  Houiteville ; 
a  Amst.  1743.  IV.  vol.  12mo.  Lettres  de  quelques  Juifs 
Portiigflis  et  Allemands  a  M.  de  Voltaire  ;  (par  Ant, 
Guen^e;)  Paris  1769.  and  German  ;  1773.  also  English. 
Ahrecht  von  Haller,  Letters  on  some  objections  of  certain 
living  Free-thinkers,  against  revelation  ;  (in  German,)  ed. 
2.  Bern  1778.  llf.  vol.  8vo.  Genie  du  christianisme,  ou 
beautes  de  la  religion  chretienne  ;  par  Francois  Auguste 
Chateaubriand;  Paris  1802.  V  vol. 

D.  Tela  ignea  Satanae  ; — in  lucem  protrusit  Jo,  Ch.  Wa- 
genseilius;  Altorfi  1681.  4to.  PhiUppi  a  Limborch,  de 
veritate  religionis  christianae  arnica  collatio  cum  erudito 
Judaeo  ;  Goudae  1687.  Basil  1740.  8vo. 


160  muenscher's  elements 

E.  Edwardde  Cherhury,  de  religione  gentilium  errorumque 
apnd  eoscausis  ;  Amst.1708.  8vo.  GerhardiJo,  Vossii, 
de  theoloiria  gentili  et  phisiloiogia  christiaiia,  Libri  IX. 
ed.  3.  Francf.  ad  Moen.  1G75.  4to.  Tohiae  Pfanneri, 
Systerna  Iheologiae  gentilis  purioris;  Basil  1679. 

Sec.  173.  Most  recent  history  of  belief  in  revelation. 
The  infidelity  propagated  from  England  and  France 
into  Germany,  called  forth  many  writings  in  confirmation 
of  the  truth  and  divine  origin  of  Christianity.  The 
Wolfenbuttle  Fragments^  and  the  controversies  re- 
specting them,  appear  to  have  had  a  decided  in- 
fluence in  shaping  men's  viev^s  of  the  nature  of  re- 
velation. For,  from  this  time  onward,  it  became 
more  manifest,  that  most  theologians  either  wrapt  up  the 
idea  of  a  revelation  in  equivocal  obscurity,  or  had  recourse 
to  a  distinction  between  mediate  and  immediate  revela- 
tion. The  Kantean  philosophy  was  applied,  in  various 
ways,  in  order  to  sustain  faith  and  a  revelation ;  but  with 
as  little  success,  as  may  be  expected  to  attend  the  more 
recent  attempts,  to  trace  all  religion  back  to  a  divine  re- 
velation. The  Tubingen  school,  however,  stands  alone, 
in  holding  fast  the  old  and  pure  idea  of  revelation,  unal- 
tered. 

Notices,  Goith.  Ephr.  Lessing'^s  Contributions  to  historT 
and  literature,  derived  from  tlie  treasures  in  the  library  at 
Wolfenbuttle  ;  (in  German,)  3d  and  4lh  Contribiit.  1777. 
On  the  aim  of  Jesus  and  his  disciples;  (in  Germ.)  1778. 
The  remaining  and  unprinted  works  of  the  Wolfenbuttle 
Fragmentists;  (inGerman,)  published  by  Schmid  (Andr. 
Riem.)  1787.  J.  Gottl.  Flchte,  Criticism  on  all  Reve- 
lations; (in  German,)  ed.  2.  Konigsb.  1793.  Critical 
theory  of  revelation  ;  (inGerman.)  Halle  1793.  Imm. 
Fred.  Niethammers  Essay  to  establ  sh  a  rational  belief  of 
revelation  ;  (in  German.)  Lips,  1798  &c. 

C.L.  Nietzsch,  de  revelatione  religionis  externa  eaque  pub- 
lica;  Lips.  1808.  8vo. 

F.  Steudel,  On  the  tenableness  of  faith  in  a  historical  reve- 
lation from  God  ;  (in  German,)  Stutg.  18l4.8vo. 


OF    DOGMATIC    liISTORT.  161 

Recent  Apologies:  Theod.  Ck,  Lilienthal,  Revelation  a  good 
thingj  proved  and  vindicated  against  the  enemies  of  it ; 
(in  German,)  Konigsb.  1750-78.  XVI  vol.8 vo.  Charles 
Bonnet's  philosophical  examination  of  the  evidences  of 
Christianity  ;  (in  German,)  translated,  and  notes  added, 
by  /:  C.  Lavater,  Zurich  1769.  Aug.  Fred.  W,  Sack, 
The  faith  of  a  christian  vindicated  ;  (la  German,)  Berlin 
1773.  VIII  Parts.  J.  A.  Noesselt,  Defense  of  the  truth 
and  divinity  of  the  christian  religion  ;  (in  German,)  ed,5. 
Halle  1783.  8vo.  G.  G.  Less,  On  the  christian  religion, 
its  history,  choice  and  confirmation  ;  (in  German,)  ed.  2. 
Getting.  1786.  K  vol.  8vo.  also  in  English.  J.  Fred. 
Kleucker^s  New  examination  and  elucidation  of  the  prin- 
cipal arguments  for  the  truth  and  divinity  of  Christianity ; 
(in  German,)  Halle  1787-94.  HI  vol.  The  truth  and 
divinity  of  Christianity  briefly  stated  ;  (in  German,)  Hanib. 
1803.  8vo.  J.  S.  Franke,  Attempt  of  an  Apology  for  the 
christian  religion  ;  (in  German,)  Altona  1817.  8vo. 

Sec.  174.  Miracles  and  prophecies. 
Miracles  were  ever  viewed,  as  one  principal  evidence 
of  Christianity ;  and  it  therefore  excited  great  attention, 
when  Thomas  Woolston  (d.  1733)  attempted  to  explain 
the  miracles  of  Christ  allegorically.  Concerning  the  ob- 
ject and  the  idea  of  a  miracle,  two  eminent  philosophers, 
Isaac  JYewton  and  Leibnitz,  entertained  different  views } 
yet  both  admitted  the  possibility  of  miracles.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  Scotchman,  David  Hume,  and  the  Genevan 
citizen,  John  James  Rousseau,  came  forth  subtle  opposers 
of  miracles.  After  the  Englishman,  Conyers  Mid- 
diet  on,  had  confined  miracles  to  the  apostolic  age,  J.  Cas- 
per Lavater  maintained  the  uninterrupted  continuance 
of  miraculous  powers  in  the  christian  church.  In  the 
most  recent  times,  the  voice  of  those  who  reject  miracles, 
generally,  has  been  raised  both  often  and  loud.  Many 
theologians  have  attempted  to  explain  the  miracles,  on 
natural  principles ;  others,  following  Spinoza  and  Locke, 
define  a  miracle,  so  indistinctly,  and  with  such  latitude, 
tliat  a  miracle  may  easily  be  conceived  of,  but  would  be 
an  insignificant  thing.     The  question  has  also  been  dis- 

16 


162 

cussed,  whether  Jesus  aimed  to  establish  his  doctrine,  by- 
miracles;  and,  whether  miracles  can  be  made  to  prove 
any  doctrine  whatever.  Among  all  miracles,  that  of  the 
resurrection  of  Jesus,  has  been  most  dwelt  upon,  and 
vindicated  against  the  objections  of  opposers. — The  proof 
from  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament,  was  treated 
as  holding  a  high  rank,  till  the  time  that  Anthony  Collins 
assailed  it.  Notwithstanding  various  answers  to  him 
were  published,  this  argument  has  been  more  and  more 
laid  aside;  especially,  in  consequence  of  the  estimation, 
which  the  new  theology  puts  on  the  predictions  concern- 
ing the  Messiah.  In  general,  it  has  become  more  com- 
mon, since  the  time  of  J,  S.  Semler,  to  rest  the  truth  of 
Christianity,  upon  the  internal,  rather  than  the  external 
evidences ; — yet  J.  Fr,  Kleuker  and  others,  have  de- 
clared against  this. 

Notices.  Bernard  Connor,  Evangelium  medici  ;  Lend. 
J 697. —  Thomas  Woolston,  Six  discourses  on  the  mira- 
cles of  our  Saviour  ;  Lond.  1727-29. — Conyers  Middle- 
ton,  Free  enquiry  into  the  miraculous  powers  ;  Lond. 
1749.  (in  German,)  with  critical  remarks,  by  C  JG.  von 
Windheim ;  Hanov.  1751. — A  vindication  of  the  Free 
enquiry;  Lond.  1751. — Dan.  Hume,  Essay  on  miracles  ; 
Lond.  1764. — (Dissertation  concerning  miracles ;  by 
George  Campbell; — also  in  French,  by  J.  de  Castillon ; 
1765.) — J.  J.  Rousseau^heiive  de  la  montagne,  &c. 
Amst.  1764. — (Remarks  on  the  miracles  c^fihe  Gospel, 
in  answer  to  the  objections  which  J.  J.  Rousseau  has 
raised  against  them  ;  Gorman,  from  the  French,  of  M, 
Claparede ;  Francf  1774.) — Free  remarks  on  the  doc- 
trines of  miracles  and  a  revelation,  in  Letters  to  a  friend  ; 
(German,)  1792. — Review  of  the  decision  respecting 
miracles  and  a  revelation  ;  (in  German,)  by  Sam.  Rifter ; 
in  Henke's  New  Magazine,  vol.  I.  p.  206. — Apology  for 
faith  in  miracles  and  revelation  ;  (in  German,)  by  Hiiner- 
wadel ;  in  Flatt's  Magazine  for  christian  dogmatics  and 
morals,  Pt.  VIIL  p.  140  &c.— Jo.  Ch,  Eck^'^An  attempt 
to  explain  the  history  of  the  N.  Test,  miracles,  from  natu- 
ral causes;  (in  German,)  Berlin  1795. — Geo.  Laur, 
Bauery  Hebrew  mythology  of  the  Old  and  New  Test,  (in 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  163 

Germ.)  Lips.  1802-03.  II  vol.  8 vo.— Would  Jesus  have 
miracles  and  signs,  to  be  considered  as  proofs  of  his  divine 
mission ;  (German,)  in  Eckermann' s  theol.  Contribu- 
tions, vol.  V.  P.  II. — Did  Jesus  declare  his  mil  acles,  to  be 
a  proof  of  his  divine  mission ;  (German,)  by  Stoir ;  in 
Flatt's  magazine.  Pt.  IV. 

J.  F,  C,  Grdffe,  Philosophical  defence  of  the  miracles  of 
Christ  and  his  Apostles  ;  (Germ.)  Gott.  1812.  8vo, 

Muzel,  On  belief  in  the  miracles  stated  in  theN.  Test.  (Ger- 
man,) Elberf.  1815.  8vo. 

Reinhold:  in  Schuderof's  new  Journal  &c.  (German,)  vol. 
II.  P.  2. 

Humphrey  Diiton,  The  truth  of  the  christian  religion  de- 
monstrated, from  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ ;  Ger- 
man from  the  English.  Brunsw.  1749. — Gilbert  West, 
Remarks  on  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  ;  German  from  the 
Engl.  Berlin,  1748. — William  Sherlock,  Trial  of  the  wit- 
nesses of  Christ's  resurrection  :  German  from  the  Eng- 
lish. Lips.  1751. — G,  Less,  History  of  the  resurrection 
of  Jesus  ;  (German,)  Gott.  1779. — J.  B.  Michaelis,  Ex- 
planation of  the  history  of  Christ's  burial  and  resurrec- 
tion ;  (in  German,)  Halle  1783. — The  fifth  fragment, 
from  G.  E.  Lessing's  fourth  Contribution  to  history  and 
literature  ;  with  notes  by  J,  D.  Michaelis;  (Germ.)  Halle 
1785. — (J.  C.  Doederleiii's)  Fragments  and  antifrag- 
ments ;  (German,)  new  ed.  Nurnb.  1788,  II  vol. — J. 
Fred.  Plessing^s  History  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ, 
reconsidered;  (German,)  Halle  1788. 

Anthony  Collins,  Discourse  on  the  grounds  and  reasons  of 
the  christian  religion  ;  Lond.  1724. — Defence  of  Christi- 
anity from  the  prophecies  of  the  O.  Test,  by  Edicard 
Chandler ;  Lond.  1725.  8vo. — An  essay  on  the  truth  of 
the  christian  religion,  wherein  its  real  foundation  upon 
the  O.  Test,  is  shown  ;  by  Arthur  Ashley  Sykes;  Lond. 
17^5. — The  use  and  intent  of  prophecy,  in  the  several 
ages  of  the  church  ;  by  Tho.  Sherlock;  Lond.  1725.  8vo. 
and  German  ;  by  Fr.  Eberh.  Rambach,  Lemgo  1749, 
8vo. — Eckermann's  Theolog.  Contributions  ;  (Germ.) 
vol.  I  and  II. — G,  Fr.  Seiler,  Prophecy  and  its  fulfilment  5 
(German,)   1794.  8vo. 


164  muenscher's  elements 

W.  C.  L,  Ziegler's  Conclusion,  that  the  evidence  of  the 
truth  and  divinity  of  the  christian  religion,  is  to  be  deri- 
ved rather  from  the  internal  excellence  of  its  instructions, 
than  from  miracles  and  prophecies  ;  (German,)  in 
Henke's  Magazine,  vol.  I.  P.  I. 

Sec.  175.     Views  concerning  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

That  the  holy  Scriptures  were  divine,  and  contained 
divine  instruction,  was  admitted  unanimously,  by  all 
christians.  In  respect  to  tlie  Canon,  the  Protestants 
differed  from  the  Catholics,  by  discarding  as  Apocryphal 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  found  only  in  Greek  and 
Latin,  which  the  Council  of  Trent  again  adjudged  to  be 
canonical.  In  regard  to  the  Canon  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, the  Protestants  followed,  for  the  most  part,  the  old 
views ;  yet  some,  among  whom  was  Luther,  allowed 
themselves  in  very  free  remarks  respecting  several  books 
accounted  canonical.  The  divine  inspiration  of  the  Bi-  - 
ble,  was  admitted  as  certain ;  and  yet  the  nature  of  in-  | 
spiration  was  never  determined  by  the  church.  Hence 
the  Protestant  and  Catholic  theologians  fluctuated  be- 
tween more  strict  and  more  lax  views,  between  an  inspi- 
ration of  both  the  words  and  the  matter,  and  an  inspira- 
tion of  the  matter  only.  Yet  the  former  idea  was  the 
prevailing  one,  among  the  Protestants  ;  and  especially,  as 
it  seemed  to  promise  them  some  advantages  in  their 
contests  with  the  Catholics ; — but  George  Calixtus  and 
others  departed  from  it.  On  the  contrary  the  Socinians, 
and  likewise  the  Arminians,  limited  inspiration  to  a  much 
narrower  compass.  Richard  Simon,  on  account  of  his 
critical  investigations,  was  considered  by  most  theologi- 
ans, as  hostile  to  the  holy  Scriptures ;  and  yet  he  did  not 
advance  ideas  so  uncommon,  respecting  inspiration,  as 
Benedict  Spinoza,  and  one  of  Simon's  opposers,  John  le 
Clerc,  brought  forward.  In  Holland  it  was  debated, 
whether  the  divinity  of  the  holy  Scriptures,  could  be 
proved  from  reason  alone. 

Notices,  Acgidii  Hunnil,  Tractatus  de  sacrosancta  majes- 
tate,  fide  et  certitudine  Sacr.  Script.  Francf.  1694.  6vo, 


OF  DOGMATIC  HISTORY.  165 

— Henr.  Bullingeri,  de  Script,  sacrae  auctoritate,  certi- 
tudine,  firmitate,  et  absoluta  perfectione,  Libri  II ;  Tiguri 
1538. — Sam.  Bockarti,  Epislola  ad  Tapinum,  qua  Scr. 
sacr.  divinitas  demontratur  ; — in  his  0pp.  T.  I.  p.  923.— 
Ben.  Spinozae,  Tractatus  theologicus  ;  Hamb.  (Amst.) 
1670.  4to. — Histoire  critique  du  vieux  Testament ;  par 
R.  Simon;  a  Roterod.  1685.  Sentimens  de  quelques 
theologiens  de  Hollande  sur  1'  Histoire  critique  du  vieux 
Testam.  (par  J.  le  Clerc) ;  Amst.  1685.  12mo.  in  Ger- 
man;  Zurich  1779,  il  vol.  8vo. — Reponse  au  livre  inti- 
tule :  Sentimens  &c.  par  le  Prieur  de  Bollemlle  (R.  Si- 
mon) ;  Roterod.  1686.  4to. — Defense  des  sentimens  de 
quelques  theologiens;  Amst.  1686.  12mo. — Del'  inspi- 
ration des  livres  sacres ;  par  le  Prieur  de  Bolleville  ;  Ro- 
terod. 1699.  4to. — Jo.  Hen.  Mail,  Dissertt.  IV.  de  Scrip- 
tura  sacra;  Francf.  1708.  4to. 

Sec.   176.     Recent  views  in  Germany. 
In  Germany,  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  centu- 
ry, the  criticism  of  the  Bible  had  made  considerable  ad- 
vances, when  investigations  were  renewed,  respecting  its 
Canon.    John  Sol,  Semler  commenced  them,  and  also  as- 
sailed  the  common  ideas  of  inspiration;  by  which  he 
would  understand,  the  practical  effect  of  the  biblical  doc- 
trines.     With   more    calmness   and   distinctness,   John 
Gottlieb   Toellner  endeavored  to  explain  the  nature  of 
inspiration,  and  to  establish  the  different  gradations  of  it. 
The  consequences  of  these  investigations  were,  that  the 
more  recent  theologians  distinguished,  more  accurately, 
the  christian  doctrine  (the  word  of  God)  from  the  Bible ; 
that  they  considered  the  latter,  not  so  much  as  one  entire 
revealed  record,  as  a  collection  of  writings,  in  which 
every  man  must  perceive  the  peculiar  characteristics  and 
modes  of  thinking  of  the  respective  writers ;  that  they 
endeavored,  by  means  of  the  higher  criticism,  to  ascer- 
tain the  origin  and  compilation  of  the  scriptures ;  and 
that  they  considered  them,   as   containing  (fxu^ou^)  fic- 
tions or  allegories.     The  most  recent  theology,  on  the 
part  of  Semler  and  Steinhart,  seems  visibly  inclined,  to 
undervalue  the  Old  Testament;  and  likewise  to  feel, 
15* 


166  muenscher's  elements 

that  the  application  of  the  higher  criticism,  unless  guided 
by  fixed  principles,  will  easily  degenerate  into  a  capri- 
cious play  with  mere  possibilities. 

Notices.  Jo.  Sol.  Semler,  Treatise  on  a  freer  investigation 
of  the  Canon;  (in  German,)  Halle  1771-75.  IV  vol. 
8vo. —  Chr.  Fred.  Schmidii,  Historia  antiqua  et  vindica- 
tio  canonis  Vet.  et  Nov.  Test.  Lips.  1775.  8vo. — Ac- 
count of  the  latest  controversies  respecting  the  Canon  ;— +- 
in  the  most  recent  history  of  religion ;  (in  German,)  pub- 
lished by  CL  Fr.  W.  Walch;  vol.  VII.  p.  241-344.— 
The  divine  inspiration  of  the  holy  Scripture ;  (in  Ger- 
man,) by  Jo.  Gottl.  loellner;  Mietau  and  Lips.  1772. — 
Jo.  KiddeVs  Treatise  on  the  inspiration  of  the  holy  Scr. 
with  many  free  remarks  added  hy  Jo.  S.  Semler ;  Halle 
1783. — The  VVolfenbuttle  Fragments,  and  the  controver- 
sy respecting  them,  between  Lessing  and  J.  M.  Goetze; 
(in  German). — J.  Jac,  Grieshacli,)  Stricturarum  in  lo- 
cum de  theopneustia  libror.  sacrorum.  Partes  I — V  ; 
Jenae  1784-88,  Henr.  Gottl.  Paulus,  An  primitivi 
christian!  inspirationem  quam  vocant  et  infallibilitatem 
pro  synonymis  habere  soliti  sint ;  Jenae  1802.  rec.  in  J. 
D.  Pott,  Sylloge  commentatt.  theol.  vol.  HI.— (?.  F.  N. 
Sonntagy  Doctrina  inspirationis,  ej usque  ratio,  historia,  et 
usus  popularis  ;  Heidelb.  18lO.  8vo. 


CHAPTER  II. 

BIVERSE    VIEWS  AND    EXPLANATIONS   OF  THE  CHRISTIAN 
DOCTRINES. 

Sec.  177.     Various  first  principles  of  Christianity. 

The  representation  given  of  the  christian  doctrine, 
must  necessarily  be  very  different,  according  to  the 
sources  from  which  men  derive  it,  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  deduce  it.  The  protestant  churches  set  up 
the  rule,  diat  the  substance  of  Christianity  must  be  learn- 
ed, directly  from  the  holy  scripture.    In  opposition  to 


or   DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  167 

the  Catholics,  they  therefore  rejected  the  use  of  tradition, 
as  a  guide  in  explaining  the  bible,  and  as  one  of  the  pro- 
per sources  of  religious  knowledge ;  and  they  urged, 
that  the  perusal  of  the  bible,  should  be  left  free  to  all 
christians,  without  distinction.  They  moreover  rejected 
the  opinion,  of  certain  sects  and  persons  called  fanatics, 
that  men  must  be  guided  by  an  internal  light,  in  order  to 
have  a  knowledge  of  religion,  and  a  right  understanding 
of  the  bible.  And  lastly,  they  rejected  the  principle  of 
the  Socinians,  that  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  must  be 
admitted  always,  in  the  sense,  in  which  reason  can  com- 
prehend them ;  and  that,  therefore,  no  real  mystery  can 
have  place  in  it.  The  modern  theology  of  the  rational- 
ists, holds  to  the  principle,  that  the  christian  doctrine  is 
to  be  derived  from  the  bible ;  but  it  recognizes  in  Christ- 
ianity, nothing  but  natural  religion ;  and  reconciles  the 
contradictions  of  these  two  principles,  by  adopting  moral 
interpretations  of  the  bible,  after  the  manner  of  Kant ;  or 
by  applying  the  theory  of  doctrinal  accommodation  to 
the  christian  instructions  ;  or  lastly,  by  recurrence  to  the 
idea,  that  Christianity  is  a  perfectable  religion. 

Notices.  Des  traditions  et  de  la  perfection  de  V  ecriture 
sainte;  par  Pierre  du  Moulin;  a  Sedan  1631.  8vo. — 
Ch  Matth.  Pfaffii,  Diss,  de  traditionum  non  scriptanmi 
speciebus,  vaiore,  certitudine  ;  Tub.  1720.  4to. — PhiL 
Marheineke,  On  the  true  sense  of  Tradition,  in  the  Cath- 
olic theology  ;  (German,)  in  Daub  and  Creuzer^s  Studi- 
en,  vol.  IV.  P.  II.  p.  320  ^Lc—Ejusd.  System  of  the 
Catholic  religion  ;  (in  German,)  vol.  II.  p.  184  &c.  es- 
pecially p.  199  &c. — Gust.  Ge.  Zeltneri,  Breviarium 
controversiarum  cum  enthusiastis  et  fanaticis  adhuc  2l%\- 
tatarum  ;  Lips.  1724.  8vo. — Jo.  Musaei,  de  usu  princi- 
piorum  rationis  et  philosophiae  in  controversiis  theologi- 
cis;  Jen.  1644.  8vo. — On  reason  and  its  use  ;  (German,) 
in  (Junge's)  Philos.  undtheologischen  Aufsatzen  ;  Numb, 
und  Altd.  1779.  P.  I.  p.  1-72.— Observationes  ad  mo- 
ralem  sive  practicam  librorum  sacror.  interpretationem 
pertinentes ;  scripsit  (pikcikrihYig  Epi^aivwv  (C/e.  W.  He- 
hensfreit,)  Lips.  1796.  8vo. — Paul  von  Hemert,  On  ac- 


168  muenschkr's  elements 

commodationsin  the  New  Test.  German  from  the  Dutch  ; 
Dortm.  and  Lips.  1797. — W.  A,  Tellers  Religion  of 
the  more  advanced  ;  (in  German,)  Berl.  1792. — \Krug) 
Letters  on  the  perfectibility  of  revealed  religion  ;  (in 
German,)  Jena  1795.  8vo. — Programma  paschale  :  Ex- 
ponuntur  quaedam  de  fundamento  theologiae  recentioris, 
ejusque  cum  doctrina  Christiana  consensu  ;  P.  L  Gott. 
1812.  4to. 

Sec,  178.     Opinions  concerning  the  importance  of  reli- 
gious doctrines. 

The  violent  ferment  of  feeling,  which  existed  among 
the  theologians  of  the  sixteenth  century,  led  each  sect  to 
attach  the  highest  importance  to  the  doctrinal  principles 
it  maintained.  The  Council  of  Trent  laid  all  dissentients 
under  an  anathema ;  and  the  authors  of  the  Formula  of 
Concord,  and  the  theologians  of  Dort,  did  not  hesitate  to 
condemn  their  opposers.  The  discrimination  of  funda- 
mental doctrines  (articuli  fundamentales),  was  developed, 
in  the  controversy  between  the  Lutherans  and  the  Re- 
formed churches,  and  also  in  those  between  the  Remon- 
strants and  the  Contra-remonstrants  :  the  number  of  such 
doctrines  was  greatly  enlarged,  and  the  reception  of  them 
considered  necessary  to  salvation.  Those  who  enter- 
tained more  moderate  views, — as  the  Arminians,  George 
Calixius,  and  various  English  divines,  were  denominated 
Indifferentists,  Syncretists,  and  Latitudinarians,  The 
later  modifications  of  theology,  have  been  accompanied 
with  milder  decisions,  respecting  the  pagans,  and  those 
of  a  different  belief.  To  the  differences  between  the  two 
Protestant  confessions,  less  and  less  importance  has  been 
attached ;  the  idea  of  fundamental  articles  has  been  re- 
viewed, and  modified  variously,  and  the  number  of  such 
articles  greatly  diminished.  The  close  adherence  to  the 
symbolical  books,  which  was  once  required  from  every 
protestant  divine,  was  first  softened  by  Spener,  and  since 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  has  been  visibly  on 
the  decline.  The  obligatory  nature  of  these  writings, 
was  disputed  by  Germanus  Liidke,  Busching  and  others  y 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  169 

and  subsequently,  the  religious  edict  of  the  Prusian 
government,  A.  D.  1788,  brought  this  subject  under 
warm  discussion.  Previously  to  this,  many  of  the  Eng- 
lish divines  had  written  against  the  xxxix  Articles. 

Notices,  Nicol.  Hunnii,  dia(fxt-^ig  theologica,  de  funda- 
mental! dissensu  doctrinae  Lutheranae  et  Calvinianae  ; 
Wittemb.  1626.  ed.  2.  1663.— C/t.  Mat.  Pfaffii,  Diss,  de 
fidei  christianae  articulis  fundamentalibus  ejusque  analo- 
gia;  Tub.  1718.  4to. — J.  A,  Eberhard,  New  apology  of 
Socrates;  (in  German,)  ed.  2.  Berlin  1778.  II  vol.  8vo. 
-—W,  Ft.  Hvfnagel,  Programm.  de  vera  articulorum 
fidei  finitione;  Erlang.  1783.  4to. — J,  W,  Schmid,  On 
the  christian  religion  ;  (German,)  Jena  1797.  p.  127 
&z,c, — Ckr.  G.  Kujjfer,  Diss,  de  ratione  constituendi  ar- 
ticulos  fundamentales  religionis  christianae  ;  Viteb.  1802. 
4to. 

Account  of  the  commotions  and  contests  respecting  the 
symbolical  books,  in  Germany  ;  (German,)  in  Walch's 
Latest  history  of  religion,  vol.  II.  p.  305-382. — Account 
of  the  commotions  in  England  ;  (in  German,)  Ibid.  vol. 
III.  p.  405-302.  Vol.  IV.  p,  491-572.— Examination  of 
all  the  writings  occasioned  by  the  royal  Prusian  edict 
concerning  religion ;  (in  German,)  by  Henr,  'Phil. 
Henke;  Kiel  1793.  8vo. 

Sec.  179.  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 
The  reformers  declared  themselves  disposed,  in  no 
respect  whatever,  to  depart  from  the  views  of  the  Trinity, 
laid  down  in  the  ancient  Creeds;  and  they  instituted  no 
new  investigations  of  this  doctrine,  because  they  had  no 
contests  about  it  with  the  Catholics.  But  when  opposers 
of  this  doctrine  rose  up,  the  Protestants  supposed,  they 
should  secure  themselves  against  suspicion  of  being  con- 
nected with  these  opposers,  by  expressing  the  strongest 
abhorrence  of  them.  The  execution  of  Miguel  Servcdo 
(Michael  Servetus)  by  Calvin^s  instigation,  which  Me- 
tanchthon  also  approved,  is  proof,  to  what  a  fearful  height 
this  hostility  had  risen.  The  new  sect  of  Unitarians,  set 
up  by  Famto  Sozzino  (Faustus  Socinus),  was  assailed 


170  muenscher's  elements 

by  both  Protestants  and  Catholics ;  because  it  recognized 
only  one  God,  the  Father ;  and  accounted  Christ  a  mere 
man,  though  endowed  with  extraordinary  abilities,  and 
constituted  the  Governor  of  the  world;  and  held  the 
Holy  Ghost,  to  be  a  mere  attribute,  or  operation  of  God. 
George  Calixtus  was  accused  of  favoring  the  Socinians ; 
because  he  denied,  that  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  could 
be  proved  from  the  Old  Testament,  and  that  it  was  a 
doctrine  known  to  the  ancient  Jews.  After  the  Socini- 
ans were  driven  from  Poland,  and  had  dispersed  them- 
selves in  England  and  Holland,  deviations  from  the  com- 
mon faith  on  this  doctrine,  became  more  frequent. 
Samuel  Crell  followed  the  views  of  the  Socinians,  re- 
specting the  Trinity.  William  Whist  on  revived  Arian- 
ism ;  which  he  supposed  he  could  prove,  both  from  the 
bible,  and  from  history.  Samuel  Clarke  searched  for  a 
middle  way,  between  the  Arian  and  the  received  doc- 
trine :  but  his  system  of  subordination,  dexterous  as  he 
was  to  defend  it,  gave  satisfaction  to  neither  party. 
Souverain  pronounced  the  whole  doctrine  of  the  Trinity, 
to  be  a  corruption  of  Christianity,  derived  from  the  Pla- 
tonic philosophy.  Against  these  and  other  opposers  of 
the  Trinity,  arguments  were  employed,  which  were  de- 
rived from  the  Bible,  from  philosophy,  and  from  history  ; 
and  in  the  controversy,  some  who  attempted  to  explain 
the  Trinity,  fell  under  the  suspicion,  either  of  Tritheism, 
as  William  Sherlock;  or  of  Sabellianism,  as  Hermann 
Deusing^  John  Wallis,  and  John  le  Clerc ;  though  the 
last  of  these,  afterwards,  inclined  towards  Socinianism. 
The  peculiar  views  of  Paul  Maty,  excited  more  atten- 
tion than  they  merited.  During  these  various  contro- 
versies, several  English  divines  began  to  attach  less  im- 
portance to  this  doctrine, — in  which,  they  were  preceded 
by  the  Remonstrants;  and  the  Genevan  theologians 
were  loudly  accused,  for  having  abandoned  the  Creed 
once  so  strenuously  defended  by  John  Calvin. 

Notices.      Mich,    Serveti)  De  Trinitatis   erroribus,   Libri 
VII;  X531.  8yo. — Ejusd,  Dialogorum  de  Trinitate  Li- 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  171 

bh  II;  1532.  8vo. — Ejusd.  Christianismi  restitutio; 
1553.  8vo. — Socius,  and  other  works,  in  the  Bibliotheca 
Fratr.  Polonor. — Geo,  Calixti  Diss,  de  rnysterio  Trinita- 
tis  ;  an  ex  solius  Vet.  Test,  libris  demonstrari  queat ; 
Helmst.  1646. — Will,  Whiston's  Primitive  christianty 
revived  ;  Lond.  1711, 12.  V  vol.  8vo. — Sam.  Clarke/The 
scripture  doctrine  of  the  Trinity;  Lond.  1712.  in  Ger- 
man, with  a  preface,  by  J,  S.  Sender ;  Francf.  and  Lips. 
1776.  Bvo. — {Dan,  Waterland's  Vindication  of  Christ's 
divinity;  Cambr.  1719.  8vo.) — Hermanni  Deusingii, 
Revelatio  mystcrii  sacrosanctae  Tiiados  ;  Franeq.  1701. 
4to. — Will,  Sherlock,  Vindication  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
holy  Trinity  ;  Lond.  1690.  4tof — Jo,  Wallis^  Epistolae 
et  Orationes  sacrae  de  Trinitate  ; — Liberii  de  S,  Amore 
{le  Clerc),  Epistolae  Theologicae  ;  Irenop.  1679.  8vo. — 
Hiptoria  critica  novae  explicationis  dogmatis  de  tribus  in 
Deo  personis,  quam  vir  clariss.  Paulus  Maty  excogita- 
vit,  (SLc.  in  J .  L.  Mosheim's  Dissertt.  ad  hist,  eccles.  per- 
tinent;  vol.11,  p.  399  &c. 

Sec.  180.  Views  of  the  modern  German  divines. 
Various  theologians,  who  followed  the  principles  of  the 
Wolfian  philosophy,  attempted  to  denionstrate  the  doc- 
. trine  of  the  Trinity,  or  at  least  to  make  it  conceivable  to 
reason ;  but  they  did  not  escape  the  charge  of  approxi^ 
mating  to  Sabellianism.  From  the  time  that  Christ, 
Toh.  Damm  openly  maintained  the  Socinian  views,  in 
opposition  to  the  doctrine  of  the  church,  a  great  diversity 
in  opinion  showed  itself.  /.  B.  Basedow  defended  the 
Arian  doctrine ;  but  afterwards  he  went  over  to  the  So- 
cinians.  Some  respectable  theologians,  as  G,  Schlegel 
and  Loeffler,  gave  the  preference  to  the  modal  concep- 
tion of  it.  The  new  theories  of  Urlsperger  and  Bucerus, 
met  with  no  approbation.  Although  the  prize  question 
by  the  King  of  England,  respecting  the  divinity  of  Christ, 
led  to  no  decision  of  the  subject ;  yet  the  doctrine  of  the 
church,  has  not  been  without  learned  defenders,  as  Ge. 
Fr.  Seiler,  and  J.  JP.  Flatt.  Amidst  all  the  dissimilarity 
of  opinion  on  this  subject,  the  modern  theologians  seem 
to  have  become  agreed,  after  the  example  of  Toellmr^ 


172  muenscher's  elements 

in  ascribing  to  no  one  of  the  different  theories,  so  high  im- 
portance, as  was  formerly  ascribed  to  them. 

Notices.  G.  SchlegcVs  Renewed  consideration  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  ;  (in  German,)  Riga  1791-93.  Ill 
vol. — Ejusd,  Sin)plified  exhibition  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
Father,  Jesus  the  Son  of  God,  and  the  Holy  Spirit ;  (in 
German,)  Berlin  and  Stralsund  1796. — Christology,  or 
Results  of  the  latest  exegetical  explanations  concerning 
the  divmity  of  Christ ;  (in  German,)  by  Fred.  Euchar. 
Oertel ;  1792. — (Contrit)utions  for  answering  the  ques- 
tion, Wiiether  fiith  in  Christ  as  the  supreme  God,  accords 
with  scripture  ?  in  sonle  remarks  on  Oertel's  Christology; 
(^hy  Roth;  in  German;)  1793.) — Joh.  Aug.  Vrlsper- 
ger's  Concise  system  of  his  statement  of  the  Trinity  ;  (in 
German.)  Augsb.  1777. — The  mystery  of  the  Trinity  in 
its  dangerous  situation.  A  new  idea  of  the  Trinity  ;  (in 
Germ.)  by  Christ.  Fred.  Bucerus ;  Lips.  1792. — J.  S, 
Seinlers  Preparation  for  tlie  royal  Briltish  prize  question, 
respecting  the  divinity  of  Christ;  (in  German.)  Halle 
1787.  Ovo. — G.  F.  Seiler,  On  the  divinity  of  Christ ;  (in 
German,)  Lips.  177o.  8vo. — J.  Fr.  Flatt,  Commenta- 
tio,  in  qua  symbolica  ecclesiae  nostiae  de  deitate  Christi 
sententia  probatur  et  vindicatur  ;  Getting.  1788.  8vo. — 
Besenheck,  On  the  trinity  of  God;  an  attempt  to  bring 
this  doctrine  back  to  its  biblical  simplicity  and  purity  ;  (in 
German,)  1814.  8vo. — Is  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  a 
fundamental  doctrine  of  the  christian  faith  /  (in  German,) 
in  J.  G.  Toelhier's  Short  miscellaneous  papers  ;  vol.  11. 
P.  L 

Sec.  181.     Djictrine  of  c^^eation. 

Besides  the  old  question,  whether  the  existence  of  the 
world  from  eternity,  or  its  creation  in  time,  was  to  be  ad- 
mitted ;  the  account  contained  in  the  first  chapters  of  the 
book  of  Genesis,  called  forth  new  investigations.  Ac- 
cording to  Astruc's  example,  divines  began  to  consider  the 
book  of  Genesis,  as  a  compilation  from  the  productions 
of  several  writers  of  an  earlier  age ;  and  also  to  indulge 
freer  opinions  respecting  it.  At  first,  attempts  were  made 
to  defend  the  account,  as  being,  at  least  in  part,  true  his- 


OF    BOGMAtlC    HISTORY.  173 

tory ;  next,  the  allegorical,  and  at  last  the  mythic  inter- 
pretation, gained  tiie  ascendency.  That  from  the  Mo- 
saic account,  it  is  impossible  to  gather  the  age  of  this  earth, 
and  much  more  that  of  the  created  universe,  was  admit- 
ted almost  universally.  Yet  John  de  Luc,  finding  this  ac- 
count to  agree  with  the  results  of  the  deepest  researches 
into  nature,  would  infer  that,  it  must  have  been  commu- 
nicated in  a  revelation  from  God. 

Notices.  Critique  on  the  doctrine  of  creation  in  the  received 
theology  ;  (in  German,)  by  TF.  C.  L.  Ziegler;  in  Henke's 
Magazine,  Vol.  II.  P.  I.  and  Vol.  VI.  P.  ll.  {Astruc,) 
Conjectures  sur  les  memoires  originaiix,  dont  il  paroit, 
que  Moise  s^est  servi  pour  composer  le  livre  de  Genese : 
a  Bruxelles  1753.  8vo.;  and  German;  Francf.  1783. 
J.  G'  RosenmullerU  Antiquissima  telluris  historia  ;  Ulm 
1776  ;  and  in  German,  with  enlargements  ;  Niirnb.  1782, 
J.  G;  Herder^ s  Most  ancient  records  of  the  human  race  ; 
(in  German,)  vol.  I.  1790.  Gahler's  New  essay  on  the 
Mosaic  history  of  the  creation  ;  (in  German,)  1795.  The 
most  ancient  Theodicee,  or  Explanation  of  the  three  first 
chapters  of  (jenesis;  (in  German,)  by  W.  A.  Teller  \ 
Jena  1803.  Joh,  Esai\  Silberscldag,  Geogony  ;  (in 
German,)  Berlin  1780-83.  Ill  vol.  4to.  J.  deLuCfhet" 
tres  physiques  et  morales  sur  Thistoire  de  la  terre  et  de 
I'homme  ;  a  la  Have  1779.11vol.  Lettre  aux  auteurs 
Juifs  d'un  memoire  addresse  a  M.  Teller  ;  par  J.  de  Luc; 
Berlin  1799.  Moses  and  David  no  geologists;  (in  Ger- 
man,) by  Dav.  Jul.  Pott;  Berl.  1799. 

Sec.  182.  Doctrine  concerning  Angels. 
The  Protestants  rejected  the  long  prevalent  opinion^ 
introduced  by  the  pseudo-DIonysius,  of  a  celestial  hierar- 
chy, and  of  a  guardian  angel  assigned  to  every  man ;  but 
especiallyj  the  worshipping  of  angels.  The  earlier  the- 
ology often  went  into  inquiries,  whether  the  angels  have 
bodies,  when  they  were  created,  and  how  they  became 
confirmed  in  goodness  by  the  Deity.  The  modern  the- 
ology, on  the  contrary,  leaves  the  existence  of  angels  pro- 
blematical ;  and  gives  other  interpretations  to  the  biblical 

16 


174  muenscher's  elements 

narrations  of  the  appearance  of  angels.  The  belief  in 
evil  angels,  and  in  their  powerful  influences,  was  long 
common  with  Protestants  and  Catholics ;  till  Balihasar 
Becker,  though  amidst  great  contradiction,  denied  the  in- 
fluence of  evil  spirits  upon  mankind,  and  Christian  Tho- 
masius  disproved  the  reality  of  magic.  Following  in  the 
steps  of  the  Englishmen  Arthur  Ashly  Sykes  and  Hugh 
Farmer,  J.  S.  Semler  was  the  first  in  Germany,  who  de- 
clared the  demoniacs  of  the  New^  Testament,  to  be  per- 
sons laboring  under  natural  disease.  In  the  controversy 
that  ensued,  most  of  the  divines  inclined  to  the  idea,  that 
the  whole  doctrine  concerning  the  devil,  was  merely  an 
accommodation,  derived  from  Judaism. 

Notices,  Ciitique  on  the  doctrine  of  anorels  ;  (in  German,) 
in  Henkes  Magazine,  vol.  III.  P.  II.  vol.  Vi.  P.  I.  Com- 
pare the  New  Mairazine,  vol.  I.  P.  III.  Balfh.  Becker, 
The  world  bewitched  ;  (in  Dutch,)  Leuw.  1690.  Anist. 
1693.  4to.  (in  German,)  by  J.  M.  Schwager  ;  Lips.  1781. 
Ill  vol.  8vo.  Hugh  Farmer^  Essay  on  the  demoniacs  ; 
(German,  from  the  English,)  Berlin  1776.  J.  S.  Semler, 
j)iss.  de  dacmoniacis,  quorum  in  evanireliis  fit  mentio  ; 
Halle  1760.  4to.  ed.  4. 1779.  {G.MdUer's  Well  ground- 
ed narrative  of  a  woman  possessed  ;  (in  German)  Wit- 
lenb.  1759.)  Account  of  John  Joseph  Gasncr's  league 
with  the  devil,  and  the  movements,  thence  occasoned  ; 
(in  German,")  in  Watches  Most  recent  history  of  religion ; 
vol.  VI.  p.  369  iS^c. 

Sec.  183.  Of  the  person  of  Christ. 
In  regard  to  the  doctrine  concerning  the  person  of 
Christ,  the  Catholics,  Lutherans,  and  Reformed,  all  re- 
mained true  to  the  ancient  belief,  as  defined  by  the  de- 
crees of  Councils  ;  but  the  Socinians,  in  consequence  of 
their  ideas  of  the  Trinity,  wholly  rejected  it.  The  two 
Protestant  churches  fell  into  a  warm  contest,  respecting 
the  connexion  of  the  two  natures  of  Christ.  In  order  to 
vindicate  his  views  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  Luther  threw 
out  the  idea,  that  the  body  of  Christ,  in  consequence  of 
its  umon  with  the  divine  nature,  could  be  omnipresent 


I 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  176 

Whether  he  was  led  to  this  conclusion,  by  some  asser- 
tions of  a  sinnilar  nature,  made  by  John  Charlier  Gerson 
and  James  le  Fevre  d'^ Staples,  is  uncertain.  This  hypo- 
thesis, which  Luther  himself  seems  afterwards  to  have 
given  up,  was  eagerly  laid  hold  of  by  some  of  his 
zealous  followers,  and  by  John  Brentius  was  prescribed 
to  the  Wiirtemburg  church.  The  communication  of 
divine  properties  to  the  human  nature  of  Christ,  not- 
withstanding the  opposition  of  the  Reformed  and  of 
Melanchthon's  school,  was  made  an  article  of  faith,  by 
the  Formula  of  Concord.  And  in  later  times,  there 
has  not  ceased  to  be  opposition  to  the  doctrine,  disa- 
greement in  the  explanation  of  it,  and  contests  about 
its  application.  In  more  recent  times,  contention  on 
this  subject  has  subsided ;  and  the  collective  decisions 
of  the  church,  concerning  the  person  of  Christ,  have 
been  treated  rather  historically,  than  dogmatically. 

Notices,  Planck,  History  of  the  Protestant  theology  ; 
(in  German,)  A  catalogue  of  the  writinors,  in  Pfaff''» 
Historia  Literar.  T.  II.  p.  412  &c.  441-— 43. 

Sec.  184.     Doctrine  concerning  the  first  men. 

On  all  the  doctrines  relating  to  the  nature  of  man, 
sin,  grace,  redemption,  and  the  divine  decrees,  the 
first  reformers  aimed  to  restore  the  pure  tenets  of  Au- 
gustine ;  and  to  divest  them  of  the  adulterations  and 
modifications,  introduced  by  the  Schoolmen.  The  Pro- 
testants therefore  believed,  that  God  created  man  af- 
ter his  own  image,  which  consisted  in  original  right- 
eousness ;  but  that  this  image  was  utterly  lost,  by  the 
fall.  The  Socinians,  on  the  contrary,  placed  the  im- 
age of  God,  in  dominion  over  the  creatures ;  and  main- 
tained, the  continuance  of  it  after  the  apostasy.  Of 
late,  the  high  ideas  heretofore  prevailing,  respecting  the 
perfection  of  the  first  human  iDcings,  have  been  great- 
ly lowered ;  and  the  Mosaic  account  of  the  creation, 
and  of  the  transgression  of  the  first  men,  has  been  re- 


176 

garded,  as  either  partially  or  wholly  a  fignrative  repre- 
sentation, or  as  being  an  ancient  fable  or  fiction. 

Notices,  Fred,  TJlr.  Calixti^  Tiactatus  theolog.  de  vario 
hominis  statu.  Helmst.  1695.  4to.  (/s.  Peyrerii,  Prae- 
adamitae  ;  1655.  8vo.)  Fausti  Socini,  Disput,  de  statu 
primi  hominis  ante  lapsum  ;  Racov.  1609.  4to.  and  in 
the  Biblioth.  fratr.  Polon.  On  the  perfection  of  the  first 
men  ;  (German,)  in  (Junge's)  Philosoph.  and  Theolog. 
papers,  vol.  1.  p.  207.  On  the  propagation  of  the  divine 
image,  and  on  the  apostasy,  and  its  consequences;  (in 
German,)  J  hid  vol.  II.  p.  1  and  153.  Eichhorn's  History 
of  the  creation  ;  (in  German,)  published  by  J,  PA.  Gab- 
Ur,  II  vol.  8vo.  1792-93.  (Hadriani  Beverland,  Pecca- 
tum  originale  xar'  s^op^iiv  sic  dictum  ;  Eleutherop.  1678. 
8vo.  Eden  :  that  is,  Contemplations  on  Paradise,  and 
the  events  that  transpired  there  ;  (m  German,)  with  a 
preface,  by  C.  F.  Bahrdt ;  Francf.  1772.  8vo. 

J.  Kant,  Supposed  commencement  of  the  history  of  man  : 
(German  ;)  in  the  Berlin  Monthly  Journal,  vol.  VII. 
P.  I. 

The  allegorical  exposition  of  the  three  first  chapters  of  Ge- 
nesis, and  particularly  of  the  apostasy,  represented  in  their 
falsehood  ;  (in  German,)  by  J.  Balth  Ldderwald;  Helmst. 
1781. 

/.  G,  Rosenmiluller,  Explanation  of  the  history  of  the  apos- 
tasy; (German,)  in  the  Repertory  for  biblical  and  orient, 
literature;  vol.  V.  p.  158  &-c. 

The  most  ancient  Theodicc^e  ;  or  explanation  of  the  three 
first  chapters  of  the  Ante-Mosaic  history;  (in  German,) 
by  W.  A.  Teller;  Jena  1805.  8vo. 

Sec.  185.  Hereditary  sin. 
The  doctrine  of  the  Protestant  churches  respecting  he-, 
reditary  sin,  was  as  strong,  as  Augustine  ever  advanced; 
for,  the  milder  statements  of  Zwingle,  were  not  regarded. 
It  did  not  indeed  deprive  men  avowedly  of  liberty ;  but 
it  made  them  absolutely  unfitted  to  perform  any  thing 
morally  good,  and  deserving  of  damnation.  It  was  de- 
cided, however,  in  the  Formula  of  Concord,  in  opposi-* 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  177 

tion  to  Matthias  Flacius,  that  hereditary  sin  is  not  a  part 
of  the  substance  of  man.  The  Council  of  Trent,  on  ac- 
count of  the  prevailing  differences  in  the  bosom  of  the  Catho- 
lic church,  did  not  venture  to  establish  a  definition  of  he- 
reditary sin  ;  so  that  dillerent  explanations  of  it,  continued 
to  be  given ;  for  the  Dominicans  and  Augustinians  held 
more  closely  with  Augustine  and  Thomas  Aquinas,  while 
the  Franciscans  and  Jesuits  departed  farther  from  them. 
The  Socinians  rejected  hereditary  sin,  altogether :  and 
the  Arminians  would  not  allow  of  a  connate  desert  of 
punishment,  and  an  unfitness  for  what  is  good.  Attempts 
were  made,  in  the  Protestant  churches,  to  render  the  im- 
putation of  Adam's  sin  more  comprehensible.  Joshua 
de  la  Place  rejected  the  immediate  imputation  of  it  5  but 
his  idea  was  not  embraced,  by  his  own  church,  or  that  of 
Switzerland.  At  last,  several  voices  were  raised  in  Eng- 
land, against  hereditary  sin ;  as  those  of  John  Locke^ 
Thomas  Burnet,  and  John  Taylor,  Daniel  Whitby 
would  derive  the  universal  prevalence  of  sin,  from  man's 
mortality ;  which  Adam's  transgression  had  brought 
upon  all  his  posterity.  In  Germany,  the  foundation  for 
a  change  of  sentiments,  was  laid  by  the  Leibnitzian- 
Wolfian  philosophy ;  and  subsequently,  Toellner  and 
Eberhard  directly  assailed  the  doctrine  of  hereditary 
sin,  and  its  imputation :  and  notwithstanding  Seiler,  and 
others,  advocated  the  other  side ;  it  became  more  and 
more  common,  to  trace  the  sinfulness  of  mankind,  not 
from  the  apostasy  of  Adam,  but  as  Jerusalem  does, 
from  the  influence  of  the  senses.  Even  those  theolo- 
gians, who,  like  Reinhard  and  Storr,  continue  to  main-^ 
tain  the  existence  of  hereditary  sin,  have  abandoned 
the  old  doctrine  of  the  church,  in  some  very  impor- 
tant particulars.  The  Kantean  hypothesis,  of  a  radi- 
cal evil  in  human  nature,  continued  no  longer,  than  the 
charm  of  its  novelty  endured :  yet  it  has  contributed 
to  establish  the  principle,  that  every  sin  originates  from 
a  man's  own  fault. 

Notices.     Jos,  Placaeir  Theses  de  statu  hominis  lapsi  ante 

16* 


178 

gratiam;  Salm.  1640.  Ejusd.  Disp.  de  imputatione 
primi  peccati  Adami  ;  1655.  Dan.  Whithhy,  Tracta- 
lus  de  imputatione  divina  pecati  Adaini  posteris  ejus 
in  reatum  ;  Lond.  1711.  and  revised  by  J.  S.  Sem- 
ler;  Plalae  1775.  8vo.  .  John  Taijlor,  The  Scriptural 
doctrine  of  original  sin  ;  in  German,  from  the  3d  Eng. 
ed.  Francf  and  Lips.  1769.  J.  G.  Tocllner,  On  he- 
reditary sin,  and  the  jroodness  of  human  nature  ;  (in 
German.)  in  his  Theological  Inquiries,  Vol.  I.  P.  II. 
Judas  Iscariot,  oi  Evil  considered  in  its  connexion 
with  Good;  (in  German,)  by  C.  Davh ;  Heidelb.  18l6 
-18.  8vo.  P.  I.  and  P.  II.  sec.  1  and  2. 

Sec.  186.  Grace  and  predestination. 
On  the  doctrine  concerning  grace,  Luther  followed 
the  views  of  Augustine,  in  all  their  extent ;  and  he  de- 
fended them,  with  great  earnestness,  against  Erasmus, 
Melanchthon,  at  first,  expressed  similar  sentiments ;  but 
he  gradually  drew  back,  and  would  not  exclude  the  per- 
sonal activity  of  men.  This  change  in  Melanchthon, 
seems  to  have  reacted  upon  Luther,  who  at  last,  did  not 
disapprove  of  the  idea  of  his  friend ;  and  in  his  later 
writings,  he  speaks  of  universal  grace.  The  theory  of 
Melanchthon,  (that  of  co-operation,)  when  advanced  by 
Victorinus  Strigel,  at  Jena,  was  violently  assailed  by  Mat- 
thias Flacius,  and  his  coadjutors.  In  the  mean  time, 
John  Calvin,  though  not  without  strong  opposition,  had 
introduced  into  the  Genevan  church,  the  doctrines  of  un- 
conditional decrees,  and  of  special  grace;  which  were 
either  discarded,  or  esteemed  unimportant,  by  the  first 
Swiss  reformers;  and  he  was  able  to  gain  over  the  other 
Swiss  divines,  to  these  doctrines.  Between  one  of  his 
adherents,  Jerome  Zanchius,  and  John  Marhach,  a  Lu- 
theran divine  of  Strasburg,  a  contest  ensued,  on  this  sub- 
ject ;  but  it  was  soon  dropped.  The  Formula  of  Con- 
cord excluded  the  personal  activity  of  man,  in  his  conver- 
sion, and  rejected  the  doctrine  of  co-operation.  But,  as 
the  authors  of  this  creed,  maintained  the  universality  of 
divine  grace,  and  disapproved  of  unconditional  decrees, 
tbey  found  themselves  under  an  embarrassment ;.  frona. 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  179 

which  they  knew  not  how  to  free  themselves,  though 

they  understood  how  to  conceal  it. 

Notices.  ^Des.  Erasmiy  Diatribe  de  lihero  aibitrio  ;  s.  Col- 
latio  cum  M.  Luthero;  Basil.  1624. — Mart.  Lutheri^  de 
jservo  arbitrio  Liber,  contra  Erasmum  ;  Vitenb.  1525. 
(cum  annotatt.  editus  a  Seh,  Schmidio ;  ed.  2.  cum  prae- 
fatione  a pologet.  Jo.  Joar/i.  Zentgravii ;  Aigentor.  1707. 
4to.) — Erasmh  Hyperaspislcs,  diatribe  adv.  Servum  ar- 
bitr.  Lutheri ;  Bas.  1626,— On  the  doctrinal  views  of  the 
first  Reformed  divines  ;  (German,)  in  J.  Conr.  FiissliiCs 
Preface  to  the  3d  and  4th  volumes  of  his  Contributions 
to  the  history  of  the  Swiss  churches  and  their  reforma- 
tion.— Consensus  pastorum  ecclesiae  Genevensis  de 
aeterna  Dei  praedestinatione  ;  in  Calvini  0pp.  T.VII.  p.. 
683. 

Sec.   187.      Continuation, 

In  the  conference  of  Montbelliard  A.  D.  1586,  the 
doctrine  of  election  was  brought  under  warm  discussion^ 
between  James  Andrea  and  Theodore  Beza;  and  the 
contest  with  Samuel  Huber,  completed  the  separation 
between  the  Calvinists  and  the  Lutherans.  During 
these  contests,  the  Lutheran  divines  discovered,  and 
Aegidius  Hunnius  explained,  a  way  to  reconcile  the 
total  unfitness  of  man  for  what  is  good,  and  the  sole  effi- 
ciency of  divine  grace,  with  the  rejection  of  unconditional 
decrees :  and  this  was,  to  assume  that,  men  can  resist 
preventing  grace.  In  the  mean  time,  warm  contests  had 
arisen  among  the  Reformed,  especially  in  the  Nether- 
lands. The  Arminians  would  not  allow  the  Calvinistic 
theory,  of  unconditional  election,  special  grace,  irresista- 
ble  influences  of  grace,  and  of  saint's  perseverance,  to  be 
urged  upon  the  whole  church.  But  the  erudition  of  Si- 
mon Episcopius,  and  the  unwearied  activity  of  John 
Wytenbogart,  had  to  succumb  to  the  power  of  the  oppo- 
site party,  who  were  supported  by  the  civil  authorities; 
and  the  national  Synod  of  Dort,  solemnly  established 
those  Calvinistic  doctrines. 
Notices,     Acta  colloquii  Montisbelligartensis  ;  Tub.  1687., 

4to. —  Thodori  jPe^sfle,  Responsio  ad  Acta  col.  Mont.  Ge- 


180  muenscher's  elements 

nevae  1587.  4to. — Epitome  colloquii  Montisbell.  Tub. 
1588.  4to. — Aegidii  Hannii,  Tractatus  de  provideritia 
Dei,  et  aeterna  praedestinatione;  Francf.  1597.  8vo. — 
Acta  synodi  Dordrechli  Iiabitae  ;  Ilanov.  1620.  4to. — 
Acta  et  scripta  synodalia  Dordracena  ministroiuin  Re- 
monstrant. Harderv,  (1620.)  4to. 

Sec.    188.      Further   disagreement    in    the   Reformed 
churches  respecting  these  doctrines. 

Notwithstanding  the  decisions  at  Dort,  diversity  of 
opinions  continued.  Those  decisions  approved  the  sen- 
timents of  the  Infralapsarians ;  and  also,  did  not  reject 
those  of  the  Supralapsarians.  The  Brandenburg  di- 
vines acknowledged  the  universality  of  grace.  And  in 
France^  likewise,  a  hypothetical  universality  was  held 
forth,  by  John  Cameron  and  Moses  Amyraud;  approved, 
by  the  French  synods  at  Alen^on  A.  D.  1637,  and 
Charenton  A.  D.  1645;  warmly  contested,  by  Andrew 
Rivet  and  others;  and  defended,  hy  John  Daille  and 
David  Blondel.  The  Dutch  theologians  looked  upon 
tills  opinion,  as  very  suspicious ;  and  the  Swiss  divines 
endeavored,  to  guard  against  it,  by  the  Formula  Consen- 
sus. In  England,  the  Episcopal  church,  more  and  more, 
went  over  to  the  doctrine  of  universal  grace ;  and  even 
tlie  Swiss,  after  the  time  of  Alphonsus  Turretin,  began 
either  to  abandon  the  old  particularism,  or  to  consider 
the  whole  subject  of  the  controversy,  as  unimportant.  In 
Germany,  Lange  and  Waldschmidt  exchanged  the  last 
controversial  pieces,  on  this  subject;  and  even  Samuel 
Endemann,  strongly  as  he  once  held  to  the  doctrinal 
views  of  his  church,  did  not  hesitate,  to  reject  the  doc- 
trine of  unconditional  decrees,  with  most  of  its  depend- 
ant doctrines.  (The  very  recent  attempts  at  union  of  the 
Lutherans  and  Reformed  in  Germany,  have  occasioned 
a  renewed  examination  of  these  doctrines,  by  the  holy 
Scriptures.) 

Jfotices,  Jo.  CameroniSy  Defensio  de  gratia  et  libero  arbi- 
trio  ;  Salmur.  1624.  8vo. — Traite  de  la  predestination  et 
4e  ses  principalis  dependances ;  i^nv  Moyse  Amyraud; 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  ISI 

Salm.  1634.  8vo. — jPretZ.  »Sp.aw/?6imM,  de  gratia  uni versa- 
li  Disputatio  ;  Lugd.  1644. — Andreae  Riveti,  Synopsis 
doctrinae  Mosis  Amyraldi  et  Paulli  Testardi  de  nalura  et 
gratia,  cum  Riveti  considerationibus  et  judiciis  academi- 
arum  foederati  Belgii  : — in  Riveti  0pp.  T.  III.  p.  828. — 
Jo.  Dallaei,  Apologia  pro  duabus  ecclesiarum  in  Gallia 
protestantium  synodis  nationalibus  ;  Amst.  1655.  8vo. — 
Ejusd,  Vindiciae  Apologiae  ;  Amst.  1657.  8vo. — Sam^ 
Strimesii,  Charitologia  sacra, seu  Systema  gratiae  divinae, 
id  est,  conciliationis  gratiae  Dei  universalis  et  particula- 
rs tentamen ;  Francf.  ad  Viadr.  1712.  4to. — La  souve- 
raine  perfection  de  Dieu  et  la  parfaite  integrite  de  1'  ecri- 
ture  prise  au  sens  des  anciens  Reformes,  defendue  par 
Gabriel  Naud^ ;  Amst.  1708.  U  \o\.  S\o.—StepL  Viti, 
Apologia,  qua  synodus  Dordracena  et  reformata  fides  ab 
iniquis  criminationibus — vindicator;  Cass.  1726.  8vo. — - 
JoacJi.  Lange,  Evangelical  doctrine  of  universal  grace  ; 
(in  German,)  Halle  1722.  8vo. — Ejusd.  Firm  ground  of 
the  Evangelical  doctrine  of  the  universal  grace  of  God  ;^ 
(in  German,)  Halle  1735.  8vo. — Joh.Jac.  Waldschmidty, 
Saving  grace  of  God,  with  rejection  of  the  universal  grace 
of  God,  shewn  from  the  holy  Script,  (in  German,)  Mar-, 
purg  1735.   8vo. 

W,  F.  Rink,  Contribution  to  an  investigation  of  the  Luther- 
an and  Reformed  doctrines  concerning  the  holy  Eucha-. 
rist  and  Election,  according  to  the  word  of  God  ;  with  a 
view  to  a  union  of  the  Protestant  churches  in  one  Evan-, 
gelical  christian  church;  (in  German,)  Heidelb.  1818. 
8vo. — Jo.  SchulthesSy  Evangelical  doctrine  concerning 
the  free  election  of  grace  :  a  Contribution  to  the  union  of 
the  Evangelical  churches  ;  (in  German,)  Zurich.  1818. 
8vo. 

Sec.  189.  History  of  these  doctrines  in  the  Catholic 
churchy 

Writers.  Memoires  pour  servir  a  1'  histoire  descontrover- 
ses  nees  dans  TEglise  Romaine  sur  la  predestination  et 
sur  la  grace  depuis  le  concile  de  Trent ; — dans  la  Bib- 
liotheque  universelle  et  historique  (par  ./.  le  Clerc,) 
Tome  XIV.  p.  144-398. — Bajana,  seu  scripta  quae  con- 
troversias  spectant  occasione  sententiarum  Baji  exortas  ;; 
^n  ^q;i  Operibus.  Col,  1696,  4tp.— Historia  Congre.-i^ 


182 

gationnm  de  auxiliis  jjratiae  divinae  Libri  IV  ;  authore  J. 
Hyac,  Serry ;  Amst.  1709.  Fol — Historiae  controversi- 
arum  de  divina  gratia  ; — authore  Theodoro  Eleutherio ; 
(Levino  de  Meyer,)  Libri  111;  Antw.  1705.  Fol. — 
Ejusd.  Historiae — ab  objectionibus  Hyac.  Serry  vindi- 
catae.  Lib.  Ill;  Brux.  1715.  Fol — Histoire  gi^neraledu 
Jansenisme ;  (par  Gabr.  Gerberon),  a  Amst.  1700.  8vo. 

The  movements  in  the  Catholic  church,  respecting 
the  doctrines  of  grace  and  the  divine  decrees,  were  no 
less  considerable.  The  Dominicans  and  Franciscans 
retained  their  different  opinions,  and  continued  to  contend 
for  them,  with  the  zeal  which  the  reputation  of  their  re- 
spective orders  called  forth.  To  avoid  offending  either 
of  these  orders,  the  decisions  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
were  shaped  so  equivocally,  that  each  party  explained 
them  in  its  own  favor.  But  the  conflict  became  much 
warmer,  when  the  Jesuits  entered  into  it,  and  endeavored 
wholly  to  suppress  pure  Augustanism.  It  had  operated 
to  impair  their  popularity,  that  they  had  procured  the 
Papal  condemnation  of  the  tenets  of  Michael  Bajus.  But 
when  the  Jesuit,  Ludovicus  Molina,  came  forward  with  a 
new  essay  for  reconciling  divine  grace  and  election,  the 
Augustinians  and  Dominicans  stormed  the  Papal  chair, 
with  complaints  against  the  Jesuits,  as  corrupters  of  the 
true  doctrines  of  the  church.  The  investigations  institu- 
ted hereupon,  by  Clement  VIII,  from  the  year  1598,  in 
the  Congregatio  de  Auxiliis,  led  to  no  decision.  Cor^ 
nelius  Jansen  endeavored  to  vindicate  the  true  doctrine 
of  Augustine,  against  the  assaults  of  the  Jesuits  ;  and  thus 
gave  rise  to  the  Jansenist  party,  which  opposed  the  most 
determined  resistance  to  the  Jesuits,  and  could  not  be 
extinguished  by  them,  either  by  means  of  Papal  bulls,  or 
by  the  aid  of  the  civil  arm. — While  all  the  christian 
churches  were  contending  about  divine  grace,  certain 
Mystics  rose  up,  who  attributed  the  conversion  of  men 
solely  to  an  internal  operation  of  God,  which  had  no  con- 
nexion with  the  external  word,  and  by  which  the  soul  is 
ipnlightened,  purified,  and  united  with  God, 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  IB^ 

Notices,  Dominici  SotOy  de  natura  et  gratia  Libri  III } 
1548. — Andreae  de  Vega^  Cornmentarii  in  aliquot  conci- 
lii  Tridentini  decreta  ;  Compliit.  1548. — Ludovici  Mo- 
linae,  Liberi  arbitrii  cum  gratiae  donis,  divina  praescien- 
tia,  providentia,  praedestinatione  et  reprobatione  Concor- 
dia ;  Olyssipone  1588.  4to.  Antvv.  1595.  4to. — Cornelii 
Jansenih  Angustinus  ;  Lov.  1640.  Fol. — Traits  de  la 
nature  et  de  la  grace  ;  par  Nlcol.  Malebranche ;  Roterod, 
1684. — Eeflexions  philo?ophiques  et  theologiques  sur 
le  nouveau  systeme  (le  la  nature  et  de  la  grace  ;  par  A. 
Amauld;  1685. — Nodus  praedestinatlonis  dissolutus  ;  a 
Coelestino  Sfondratl;  Rornae  1696.  4to — Acta  consti- 
tntionis  Unigenitus  ; — edidit  Christ,  Matth,  Pfaffius ; 
Tub.  1721. 

Sec.  190.  Of  the  influences  of  the  word  of  God. 
With  the  doctrine  concerning  grace,  enquiries  respect- 
ing the  word  of  God,  were  intimately  connected.  Both 
the  Protestant  churches  were  agreed,  that  God  effects 
the  conversion  of  men,  by  means  of  his  word.  The 
word  of  God,  was  divided  into  the  Law  and  the  Gospel ; 
and  the  relations  of  these  two,  occasioned  what  was  call- 
ed the  Antiriomian  controversy.  That  the  external  word 
was  not  to  be  undervalued,  or  to  be  accounted  void  of 
power,  was  decided  in  the  contests  with  SchwenJcfeld  and 
Herm,  Rathman;  and  those  were  called  fanatics,  who 
thought  otherwise,  or  seemed  to  do  so,  on  this  subject. 
The  assertions  of  the  Frencht  heologian,  Claude  Pajon^ 
that  it  is  of  no  importance,  to  determine  the  manner  in 
which  God  produces  conversion;  and  that  no  immediate 
operation  of  divine  grace,  is  to  be  supposed;  were  rejected 
by  the  Dutch  and  French  churches.  In  the  Lutheran 
church,  the  similar  views  of  Ernest  Schubert,  that  the 
power  of  God's  word  is  only  logical  and  moral,  and  not 
supernatural,  were  warmly  resisted,  by  Ernest  Augustus 
Bertling,  and  others. 

Notices.  The  oithodox,  correct,  and  incontrovertible  doc- 
trine of  the  theologians  belonging  to  the  pure,  genuine, 
evangelical  church,  and  to  the  unaltered  Augsburg  Con- 
fession, respecting  the  holy  Scriptures,  or  the  holy,  re- 


184  muenscher's  elements 

vealed  word  of  God,  again  stated  ;  (in  German,)  Lips* 
1619.  4to. — Censures  and  reflexions  of  the  theological 
faculty,  lespecting  Thorn.  Rathmann's  books  ;  (German,) 
Jena  1626.  4to. — (Respecting  Pajon,  see  Chaufepiedt 
Dictionaire,  Tome  II.  Art.  Gene). — J.  Ernest  Schubert, 
Instruction  concerning  the  power  of  the  holy  Scripture  ; 
(in  German,)  Helmst.  1753. — Em.  Aug.  ^er^Zmo^,  State- 
ment, of  what  the  Lutheran  church  teaches,  and  does  not 
teacii,  respecting  the  power  of  the  holy  Scripture  ;  (in 
German,)  Dantzig  1756.  8vo. 

Sec.  1^1.  Most  recent  form  of  the  doctrine  of  grace. 
In  the  new  state  of  dognaatics,  various  attacks  have 
been  made,  upon  the  constituent  parts  of  Augustine's  the- 
ory respecting  grace ;  in  which,  both  philosophy  and 
history  have  been  put  in  requisition.  /.  Aug,  Eberhard, 
especially,  called  in  the  aid  of  the  former ;  and  Semler, 
that  of  the  latter.  After  Michaelis  had  questioned  the 
supernatural  operations  of  Grace,  Junckheim^s  calm  and 
deliberate  investigations  produced  a  very  great  effect. 
Storr  defended  the  immediate  operations  of  grace.  One 
consequence  of  the  recent  investigations,  was,  that  the 
distinction  between  the  word  of  God  and  the  bible,  was 
more  clearly  made.  Against  the  excessive  value,  which 
some  attach  to  religious  feelings,  Spaulding  has  published 
a  work..     *  ';     /"  ^        •  "^^ 

Notices.  {Junckheim,)  Oil  the  supernatural  in  the  opera- 
tions of  grace  ;  (in  German,)  Eilan<r.  1775.  8vo. — G.C, 
Storrli;  Diss,  de  Spiritus  S.  in  animis  hominum  efficien- 
tia  ;  Tub.  1777. — Ejusd.  Treatise  on  the  operations  of 
grace  ;  (in  German,)  Tubing.  1779. — [Joh.Joach,  Spauld- 
ing.)  On  the  value  of  the  feelings  in  Christianity  ;  (in 
Germ.)  ed.  4.  Lips.   1773.  8vo.  ^ 

Sec.  192.     Redemption  by  Christ. 
The  Protestants  embraced  in  their  creed,  the  old  idea, 
of  a  satisfaction,  which  Christ  made  to  God,  by  means  of 
his  sufferings  and  obedience.     In  this  doctrine,  they  be- 
came fixed,  in  consequence  of  the  opposition  of  the 


1 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  185 

Unitarians,  who  considered  the  death  of  Christ,  as  merely 
an  example,  and  a  means  of  confirming  the  truth  of  his 
doctrines.  Yet  George  Karg,  Zachanas  Ursinus,  and 
John  Piscator,  receded  from  the  common  opinion,  that 
the  active  obedience  of  Christ  was  vicarious;  and  the 
French  Protestant  church  finally  concluded,  to  tolerate 
this  deviation  of  Piscator,  while  the  Swiss  churches  reject- 
ed it.  Grotius  defended  some  parts  of  the  received  doc- 
trine, against  Socinus,  yet  giving  it  a  different  modification  ; 
and  he  was  attacked,  not  only  by  John  Crell,  but  also  by 
the  Reformed  divine,  Hermann  Ravensperger.  The  at- 
tack of  the  latter,  was  parried  by  Gerhard  John  Vossius, 
The  Arminians,  and  afterwards  some  English  theologians, 
as  John  Tillotson,  Edward  Stilling  fleet,  and  John  Leland, 
advanced  the  opinion,  that  the  merits  of  Christ  were  a 
full  equivalent,  for  the  guilt  of  men.  Some  mystics,  as 
the  (Quakers,  who  were  in  this  followed  by  Conrad  Dip- 
pel,  looked  upon  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  as  an  emblem 
of  the  change,  which  the  human  soul  must  undergo,  in  or- 
der to  become  pure  and  pleasing  to  God. 

Notices.  Fausti  Socini,  Dispulatio  de  Jesu  Christo  serva- 
tore ;  hoc  est,  cur  et  qua  ratione  J.  C.  noster  servs^pr  sit ; 
'  1694.  4to.  Hugonis  Grotii,  Deferisio  fulei  catholicae  de 
satisfactione,  adv.  Faustum  Socinum  ;  Lug.  Bat.  1617. 
8vo.  and  cura  Joach.  Lani^ii  ;  Halae  1730.  4to.  Herm. 
Ravenspcrgeri^  Judicium  de  libro  Grotii  de  satisfactione 
Chi,  Gronmg.  1617. 4to.  6?.  J.  Fo^^u.  Responsio  ad  Ju- 
dicium Herm.  Ravenspergeri. ;  Lugd.  1618.  4to.  and  in 
his  Opp.  T.  VI.  p.  883.  Jo.  Crellii,  Responsio  ad  librum 
H.  Grotii,  quem  de  satisAictione  scripsit ;  Racov.  1623. 
4to. 

Sec.  193.  Continuation. 
While  some  English  divines,  as  John  Taylor  and  Anth. 
Ashley  Sykes,  were  advancing  new  theories  respecting 
the  atonement,  the  Germans  remained  true  to  the  earlier 
belief,  and  endeavored  to  support  it  by  philosophical  ar- 
guments. Yet  /.  Aug,  Ernesti  rejected  the  representa- 
tion of  a  three-fold  office  of  Christ.  By  his  critical  in- 
17 


186 

quiries  respecting  the  active  obedience  of  Christ,  John 
Gottl.  Toellner  caused  the  idea  of  it,  to  be  almost  uni- 
versally given  up.  S.  Steinbart,  Joh,  Avg,  Eberhard, 
and  others,  ascribed  the  forgiveness  of  sin  to  the  death 
of  Christ,  only  in  so  far,  as  this  death  contributed  to  re- 
form sinners,  and  thus,  indirectly,  procured  them  forgive- 
ness of  their  sins.  George  Fred,  Seiler,  and  G,  Christ, 
iS^orr,*^  defended  the  earlier  opinion.  Jos.  Fred,  Loeffler 
declared  the  doctrine  of  satisfaction  for  sin,  to  be  untena- 
ble; and  he  considered  the  biblical  doctrine  of  the  sin- 
ofiering  made  by  Christ,  to  be  the  mere  dress  of  the  idea, 
that  the  first  christians  had  no  reason  to  fear  punishment, 
for  the  sins  they  had  committed  in  their  former  state  of 
Paganism  and  Judaism.  Others  perceived  in  the  death 
of  Christ,  an  emblematic  representation,  and  a  sensible 
confirmation,  of  the  fact,  that  God  is  ready  to  forgive  sin- 
ners. But,  in  general,  theologians  have  ceased  to  regard 
any  particular  explication  of  this  doctrine,  as  essential  to 
Christianity. 

Notices,  The  scripture  doctrine  of  atonement  examined  ; 
by  John  Taylor;  Lend.  1761.  8vo.  and  in  German,  Francf. 
1773.  Anthony  Ashley  SyJccs,  The  doctrine  of  the  Ho- 
ly Scripture  concerning  the  redemption  of  men  by  Jesus 
Christ;  German,  from  the  Enirlish  ;  Francf.  1777.  Jo, 
Aug,  Ernesti,  Programm.  de  officio  Christi  triplici  :  in  his 
Opuscul.  ed.  2.  Lips.  1792.  The  active  obedience  of 
Christ,  investigated  ;  (in  German,)  by  Joh.  Gottl.  Toell- 
ner ;  Brcslau  1768. — Additions  thereto;  (in  German,) 
Berlin  1770. 8 vo.  Most  recent  history  of  the  doctrine  «>f, 
what  IS  called  the  active  obedience  of  Christ  ;  (German,) 
in  Walch^s  Latest  history  of  religion,  vol.  ill.  p.  309 
—372. 

Geo. Fr. Seller,  On  the  atoning  death  of  Christ ;  (in  Germ.) 
ed.  2.  Erlang.  1781.  II  vol.  8vo.  (Apologies  of  reason, 
supported  by  rational  arguments,  in  reference  to  the  chris- 
tian doctrine  of  atonement;  (in  German,)  Basil  1781.) 
/.  D.  Michaelis,  Thoughts  on  sin  and  satisfaction  ;  (in 
German,)  Gott.  1779.  Sforr,  On  the  object  of  Christ's 
death  ;  (German.)  in  his  Explanation  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews;  Tub.  1789. 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  187 

Jos,  Fr.  Chr,  Loeffler,  Two  essays  on  the  received  doctrine 
of  satisfaction  ;  (in  German.)  Ziillich  1796.  8vo.  F. 
Wunder,  De  justificationis  moiti  Christi  tributae  univer- 
salitale  ;  Viterib,  1790.  Sldudlin,  On  the  object  and  the 
effects  of  Christ's  death  ;  (German,)  in  the  Gotting.  Li- 
brary of  the  latest  theolog.  literature  ;  vol.  I.  Philosophic 
and  exegetical  inquiries  respecting  the  doctrine  of  recon- 
ciling men  with  God  ;  (in  German,)  by  Charles  Christ. 
Flatt;  Gott.  1797.  II  vol.  Bvo.  Philosophic  and  critical 
sketch  of  the  doctrine  of  atonement  ;  (in  German,)  by 
J,  Gottf.  Aug.  Kroll;  together  with  some  thoughts  on 
the  same  subject,  by  J.  H.  Tieftrnnck;  Halle  1799. 
The  conflict  of  reason  with  herself  in  the  doctrine  of 
atonement,  stated  and  solved  ;  (in  German,)  by  W.  Tr, 
Krug  ;  Ziilich.  and  Freist.  1802. 

€r.  M.  L.  ie  Wette,  De  morte  J.  C.  expiatoria  commenta- 
tio;  Berol.  1813.  4to.  (Jesus,  at  first,  expected  his  doc- 
trinf^  of  a  heavenly  divine  kingdom,  would  meet  the  appro- 
bation of  his  countrymen.  But  the  result  showed,  that 
he  expected  too  much,  from  his  disciples  and  the  people  at 
large.  Therefore  he,  at  last,  voluntarily  died,  in  order  to 
procure  a  triumph  of  this  doctrine.) 

Is  a  distinct  idea  of  the  work  of  redemption,  necessary? 
(in  German,)  in  TocZZ/icr'^  Theological  Inquiries,  vol.1 
P.I.  p.  199. 

Sec.  194.  Justification, 
One  grand  point,  to  which  the  Reformers  attached 
special  importance,  and  on  which  they  deviated  from  the 
ancient  church,  was  the  doctrine  of  justification.  In  the 
first  place,  they  attached  a  new  idea  to  it ;  making  it  to 
consist,  not  in  the  communication  of  righteousness,  but  in 
freeing  a  person  from  the  guilt  and  punishment  of  sin. 
Secondly,  they  placed  the  meritorious  ground  (causa  me- 
ritoria)  of  justification,  solely  in  the  merits  of  Christ;  and 
excluded  all  human  satisfactions  for  sin,  as  unnecessary 
and  worthless.  And  thirdly,  they  considered  faith  as  the  only 
means  (instrumentum,)  whereby  a  man  can  partake  of 
the  merits  of  Christ,  and  so  obtain  forgiveness  of  sin. 
The  Council  of  Trent  rejected  the  Protestant  tenets ; 


188  muenscher's  elements 

and  in  the  contests,  which  ensued  on  all  these  points,  there 
were  frequent  misapprehensions,  and  bitter  mutual  re- 
proaches ;  which  were  met  in  vain,  by  full  confessions  of 
faith,and  extended  explanations,set  forth  by  the  theologians. 
It  was  also  contested,  whether  a  person  can  be  conscious 
of  his  own  justification  :  and,  whether  he  can  prepare 
himself  to  become  justified. 

Notice,  On  the  formation  of  our  orthodox  symbolical  doc- 
trine conctning  justification  :  (German,)  in  J.  Fr.  FlatVs 
Magazine  for  christian  Dogmatics  and  Moral.  P.  I. 
p.  219. 

Sec.  195.     Continuation. 

Luther's  theory  was  embraced  and  maintained,  by  the 
Protestants,  with  such  firmness,  that  Andreas  Osiander, 
— who  understood  justification,  to  be  making  a  person 
actually  righteous,  although  he  deviated  from  others, 
more  in  the  use  of  terms,  than  in  substance, — stirred  up 
universal  opposition,  from  the  Lutheran  divines.  His 
statement  of  this  doctrine,  together  with  his  position,  that 
Christ  was  the  Redeemer  of  men,  only  in  his  divine  nature; 
as  well  as  the  opposite  position  of  Francis  Stancarus,  that 
the  work  of  redemption  was  predicable  only  of  the  human 
nature  of  Christ ;  were  rejected,  in  the  Formula  of  Con- 
'  cord.  Afterwards,  the  Protestant  theologians  continued, 
to  defend  the  ideas  of  justification  contained  in  their  sym- 
bols ;  not  only  against  the  Catholics,  but  also  against  the 
Bocinians,  the  Arntinians,  and  certain  English  divines. 
In  the  Cocceian  controversy,  the  question  came  up,  whe- 
ther the  pious  under  the  Old  Testament,  obtained  the 
same  remission  of  sin,  with  the  christians :  and  in  the 
Pietistic  debates,  inquiry  was  instituted,  whether  the  be- 
stowment  of  grace,  is  limited  to  any  certain  period  [of  a 
man's  life],  after  which  it  has  no  place  (controversia  ter- 
ministica).  Since  the  last  controversy,  between  G.  Fr. 
Seiler  and  E.  L  Danov,  respecting  the  diffei-ence  between 
justification  and  predestination ;  the  modern  German 
divines  have,  for  the  most  part,  forsaken  Luther's  form  of 


OF    DOGMATIC    III  STORY.  189 

the  doctrine";  and  either  defined,  in  various  ways,  the  bibli- 
cal idea  of  justification,  or  gone  into  the  general  inquiries 
whether,  and  how,  the  forgiveness  of  sin  is  possible. 

Notices.  Theoph,  Coelest.  Piper,  Programm.  quo  Socinia- 
norum  de  justificatione  placita  strictim  exponit ;  Gryphsw. 
1795.  4to.  Controversy  between  Danov  and  Seller ^  re- 
specting the  doctrines  of  justification  and  predestination  ; 
(in  German,)  in  the  Latest  religious  events,  vol.  I.  Gies- 
sen  1778.  p.  265—300.  F.  G.  Siiskind,  On  the  possi- 
biliiy  of  remitting  punishment,  or  forgiving  sin  ;  (German,) 
in  Flatt's  Magazine.  P.  I.  p.  1.  comp.  P.  IX.  p.  71.  Is 
the  forgiveness  of  sin,  a  postulate  of  reason?  answered  by 
J.  H.  Tlef trunk ;  (in  German,)  in  Staudlin's  Contribu- 
tions to  the  philosophy  and  history  of  religion,  vol.  III.  p. 
1 12.  The  question  of  hesitating  reason  ;  Is  forgiveness 
of  sin  possible?  Is  a  gracious  remission  of  sin  to  be  ex- 
pected from  God  ?  answered  by  G.  Fr.  Seller ;  (in  Ger- 
man,) Eriang.  1798.  8vo.  /.  Aug,  Noessclt,  Programm. 
de  eo  quid  sit  condonare  pecxata  ;  Ilalae  1792.  4to.  Is 
the  removal  of  punishment,  to  be  understood  as  being  that 
forgiveness  of  sins,  which  the  New  Testament  promises  ? 
an  exeixetical  inquiry:  (in  German,)  by  Sushind ;  in 
Flatt's  Magazine.  P.  III.  p.  190,  P.  IV.  p.  7Q.  Attempt 
to  vindicate  the  doctrine  of  justification  ;  (in  German,) 
by  Leivis  Wackier ;  in  Gabler^s  Journal  for  select  theol. 
Literature,  vol.  IV.  p.  229—265. 

Sec.  196.  Faith  and  good  works. 
The  established  creed  of  the  Protestant  church,  makes 
the  conviction  which  leads  the  christian  to  apply  the  merits 
of  Christ  to  his  own  case,  to  be  the  chief  part  of  faith  : 
on  the  contrary,  the  Catholic  creed  makes  faith  to  be  the 
cordial  reception  of  the  christian  doctrine.  While  the 
former  acknowledges,  that  faith  mill  produce  good  works, 
it  denies  to  those  works  all  merit  (meritum  ex  condigno 
et  congruo);  and  rejects  absolutely,  all  works  of  superero- 
gation ;  and  in  particular,  the  value  of  monastic  vows. 
The  tenet,  that  good  works  are  necessary  to  salvation, 
was  objected  to,  as  a  fault  in  Melanchthon's  school,  and 
particularly  in  George  Major :  and  JVicholaus  von  Ams" 
17* 


190 

rfo^opposed  it,  with  the  opposite  position,  that  good  works 
are  prejudicial  to  salvation.  Both  positions  were  rejected, 
in  the  Formula  of  Concord  ;  yet,  in  the  Syncretistic  and 
Pietistic  controversies,  the  question  of  the  necessity  of 
good  works,  again  came  up.  In  France,  Lewis  le  Blanc 
fell  under  suspicion  of  inclining  to  Catholicism,  because 
he  declared  the  various  conclusions  formed,  respecting 
the  necessity  of  good  works,  to  be  a  mere  contest  about 
words.  In  the  Socinian  theology,  the  relations  of 
faith  and  good  works,  must,  necessarily,  be  differently 
viewed.  Also  the  Arminians,  and  many  English  theo- 
logians, considered  faith,  to  be  embracing  and  obeying 
the  christian  doctrine  ;  and  in  this,  they  are  followed 
by  most  of  the  modern  German  divines. 

Notices,  That  the  proposition  ;  Good  works  are  prejudi- 
cial to  salvation, — is  a  correct,  true,  and  christian  propo- 
sition, and  was  preached  by  St.  Paul  and  by  Luther  ;  as- 
serted ;  (ill  German,)  hy  Nicolas  von  Amsdorf.  1559.  4to. 
— Fred.  Will.  Dresde,  Fidei  in  causa  salutis  humanae 
ratio  ct  necessitas  denuo  nsserta  et  ah  adversariorum 
criminationibus  viridicata  ;  Dissertatt.  II.  Vitenb.  1790. 
4to. — Discourse  on  the  festival  commemorative  of  the  le- 
formation  ;  (in  German,)  Octob.  31,  1800.  by  F.  7. 
Reinhard.    1800. 

Sec.  197.  Penance. 
L/uiher,  at  first,  would  have  penance  retained,  as  a 
sacrament ;  and  even  in  the  Apology  for  the  Augsburg 
Confession,  it  is  represented  as  such  ;  and  made  to  con- 
sist in  sorrow  for  sin,  and  faith.  So  much  the  more 
earnestly,  did  the  Reformers  contend  against  the  old  ideas 
of  penance.  They  rejected  auricular  confession ;  al- 
though the  Lutheran  church  retained  a  private  confession, 
of  a  different  form.  They  moreover  declared  them- 
selves, opposed  to  all  satisfactions  for  sins ;  and  in  particu- 
lar, against  fasting,  pilgrimages,  and  flagellations.  And 
lastly,  they  denied  the  judicial  power  of  priests,  in  God's 
stead,  to  declare  menVsins  forgiven.  Indulgences,  they 
regarded  as  a  shocking  incongruity;  which  the  love  oi 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  191 

power,  and  the  avarice  of  the  Popes,  had  introduced  and 
kept  up.  In  the  Catholic  church,  the  old  doctrine  of 
penance,  was  minutely  explained,  by  the  Council  of  Trent, 
and  the  departures  from  it  laid  under  anathema.  Among 
the  Catholics,  there  was  afterwards  controversy,  respect- 
ing the  nature  of  penance,  and  oi  attritio  and  contritio. 
In  the  Lutheran  church,  the  question  was  brought  up, 
and  decided  in  the  Formula  of  Concord,  whether  pe- 
nance was  a  les;al  transaction,  or  also  an  evangelical  one. 
The  United  Brethren  retained  the  chief  features  of  the 
Protestant  theology,  respecting  penance,  and  the  whole 
dispensation  of  divine  grace ;  yet  they  annexed  some 
peculiarities  of  their  own.  The  more  recent  Protestant 
divines  have  endeavored,  to  examine  more  accurately 
the  sources  of  repentance,  or  of  a  change  of  mind  ; 
and  the  characteristics  of  that  sorrow  for  sin,  which  is 
connected  with  it ;  and  they  have  also  greatly  lowered 
down,  those  high  views  of  the  power  of  the  keys. 

Notices.  Petri  MoUnaei,  De  poenitentia  el  clavibus,  Li- 
ber ;  Sedan  1652.  8vo. — Jo.  Mw6*aei,  Tractatus  theolo- 
gicus  de  conversione  hominis  peccatoris  ad  Deurn  ;  Je- 
nae  1661.  4to. — Jo.  Launoii,  Liber  de  mente  conciiii 
Tridentini  circa  coniritionem  et  attritionein  in  Sacramen- 
to poeriitentiae ;  Paris  1653.  8vo — J.  F.  Coffa,  Eccle- 
siae  Romanae  de  attritione  et  contritione  contentio,  ex 
historia  dogmatum  delineata;  Gottinjr.  1739.  4to.  and, 
in  Gerhardi  Locis  Theoloir.  T.  VI. — Penance  and  faith  ; 
(German,)  in  J.  G.  Toellner^s  Theolog.  Inquiries,  vol. 
I.  P.  II. 

Sec.  198.  The  sacraments. 
After  the  year  1519,  Luther  directed  his  attention  to 
reforming  the  doctrine  of  the  sacraments ;  and  he  would 
allow  nothing  to  be  a  sacrament,  to  which  there  was  not 
an  express  promise  annexed,  for  faith  to  rest  upon.  In 
the  subsequent  years,  he  declared  himself  more  fully  on 
this  subject.  He  contested  the  idea,  that  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  sacraments,  in  itself,  and  without  the  exer- 
cise of  faith,  produced  salutary  effects  j  and  he  rejected 


192  muenscher's  elements 

the  sacraments  of  Confirmation,  Marriage,  priestly  Or- 
ders, and  extreme  Unction.  In  regard  to  marriage,  in 
particular,  he  censured  the  numerous  impediments  to 
it,  introduced  by  the  church ;  and  also  the  prohibition 
of  marriage  to  priests.  Afterwards,  the  Protestants  ad- 
mitted but  two  sacraments.  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per; while  the  Council  of  Tren^  established  the  seven 
sacraments.  The  Catholic  doctrine  concerning  the  pow- 
er of  the  sacraments,  ex  opere  operato,  was  explained 
by  the  Protestants,  in  a  worse  sense,  than  the  Catholic 
church  understood  it.  In  the  sacraments,  the  Lutheran 
divines  discovered  the  medium  by  which  grace  operates ; 
the  Reformed,  the  sign  and  pledge  of  grace ;  and  the 
Socinians,  an  external  rite,  by  which  a  man  professed 
himself  a  member  of  the  christian  church  ;  and  here 
the  modern  theologians  of  Germany  follow  the  Socinians. 
Concerning  the  sacraments  of  the  Old  Testament,  vari- 
ous investigations  w^ere  occasionally  made,  and  especially 
by  the  Cocceian  school.  The  Mystics  and  Fanatics  at- 
tributed little  or  no  value  to  the  sacraments. 

Notices.  Martini  Lutheri,  Liber  de  captivitate  Babylonica  ; 
Wittenb.  1520. — Aegld,  Hunnius^  De  sacramentls  Vet. 
et  Novi  Test,  praecipue  de  baptismo  et  coena  Domini  ; 
Francf.  1595.  8vo. — Jo.  Maldonafus,  De  septem  sacra- 
mentis  ecclesiae  Romanae  ;  Ludg.  IG14.  4to. — J.  Dav. 
IleUmanni,  Diss,  finiendae  justae  sacraiuenti  notioni ;  in 
his  Opusc.  Tom.  I.  p.  4. 

Sec.  199.  Baptism. 
Luther  w-as  of  opinion,  that  the  doctrine  concerning 
Baptism,  had  been  preserved  in  the  church,  more  free 
from  corruption,  than  those  of  the  other  sacraments  ;  and 
he  censured,  only  the  limitation  of  its  efficacy,  by  the 
many  satisfactions  devised  for  sins  after  baptism ;  and 
that  its  efficacy  should  be  ascribed  to  the  external  actj 
and  not  be  placed  solely  in  faith  on  the  divine  promises. 
After  the  commencement  of  the  reformation,  the  Pro- 
testants had  occasion,  to  evince  the  correctness  q£  infant 


OF   DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  193 

baptism,  against  the  Baptists,  who  spread  themselves  in 
several  countries.  The  Socinians  would  not  discard  infant 
baptism  ;  yet  they  denied  its  Apostolic  origin  ;  and  they 
doubted,  whether  baptism  was  required  of  all  christians. 
The  Quakers  rejected  water-baptism,  altogether ;  on  the 
ground,  that  Christ  instituted  only  spiritual  baptism.  Be- 
tween the  Lutherans  and  the  Reformed,  various  points 
were  debated ;  relative  to  the  efficacy  of  baptism, — 
whether  it  imparted  regeneration  and  forgiveness  of  sin, 
or  only  exhibited  and  assured  us  of  them ; — also  relative 
to  the  necessity  of  baptism,  and  the  state  of  unbaptized 
infants;  and  likewise,  the  faith  of  children,  and  the  ex- 
orcism, which  was  long  retained  in  the  Lutheran  church. 
— Of  late,  many  Lutheran  divines  have  either  given  up 
the  decisions  of  their  forefathers,  or  interpreted  them  in 
a  milder  manner.  The  theologians  of  both  confessions, 
have  begun  to  limit  themselves,  by  holding,  that  infant 
baptism  is  not  clearly  founded  in  the  New  Testament, 
yet,  that  it  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  christian  religion  ; 
and  some  have  uttered  the  opinion,  that  baptism  is  no  in- 
stitution of  Christ ;  or  at  least,  that  it  was  intended,  only 
for  the  Jews  and  Pagans  of  former  times,  who  embraced 
Christianity. 

Notices.  In  addition  to  the  works  mentioned  sec.  99  and 
100  :  see  GerL  J.  Vossius,  Dissertatl.  xx.  de  Baptismo  ;. 
in  his  0pp.  T.  VI. — Fausti  Socini,  Disp.  de  Baptismo 
aquae  ;  Racov.  1613.  and  in  his  Opp.  T.  I.  p.  707. — - 
Antonii  van  Dale.  Historia  baptisrnorum,  cum  Judaico- 
rum  turn  Christianorum  :  annexed  to  l>i&  Diss,  super 
Aristea  de  LXX.  interpretibus  ;  Amsl.  1705.— Christian 
Baptism  an  estimable  rite,  but  no  divine  institution  ;  (in 
German  ; — by  Relche,)  Berl.  1774.  8va. — Joh.  El. 
Troschel,  The  water-baptism  of  Christians,  an  institution 
of  Christ,  and  not  an  arbitrary  rite  ;  (in  German,)  Berl. 
1774.  8vo. — On  baptism  ;  a  candid  investigation,  occa- 
sioned by  the  progress  of  the  age  ;  (in  German.)  Lips. 
1802.  8vo.--C.  F.  Eisenlohry  Historical  observations  on 
BaptisT) ;  (in  German,")  Tub.  1804.  8vo. — Relche,  Dft 
baptismi  origine  et  necessitate  ;  Gotting.  1816^ 


194  muenscher's  elements 

Sec.  200.  Common  doctrine  of  the  Protestant  churches^ 
respecting  the  LorcPs  Supper. 
The  reformers  declared,  with  one  voice,  that  it  was 
precisely  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist,  that  the  great- 
est and  most  corrupt  falsification  had  been  introduced ; 
and  from  which,  that  institution  must  be  purged.  Hence, 
they  contested  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  as  un- 
scriptural,  and  unknown  to  christian  antiquity ;  and  they 
rejected  all  the  consequences  derived  from  it,  especially 
the  adoration  of  the  elements.  They  looked,  with  abhor- 
rence, on  the  Mass,  the  private  Masses,  and  the  Masses 
for  the  dead  ;  considered  as  religious  consecrations.  They 
introduced  the  use  of  the  vernacular  languages,  in  the 
celebration  of  the  Eucharist ;  and  they  discarded,  some 
more,  and  some  fewer  of  the  ceremonies,  which  before 
accompanied  it.  They  moreover,  declared  it  an  unsuf- 
ferable  abuse,  that  the  cup  should  be  withheld  from  the 
laity ;  contrary  to  the  ordinance  of  Christ,  and  the  usage 
of  the  whole  ancient  church..  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Council  of  Trent  established  the  old  doctrines ;  and  con- 
demned the  dissenting  views  of  the  Protestants.  They 
asserted,  that  the  church  has  a  right,  according  as  it  shall 
see  fit,  to  concede  or  to  deny,  the  use  of  the  cup  to  the 
laity ;  maintained,  that  it  is  not  necessary,  for  children,  to 
partake  of  the  communion;  and  disapproved  and  forbid 
some  abuses,  which  had  crept  into  the  Mass.  On  all 
these  points,  the  contest  between  the  theologians  of  the 
two  communities,  was  carried  on  with  the  greatest  bit- 
terness; and  with  arguments  which  they  derived  from 
the  Bible,  from  history,  and  from  philosophy. 

Notices,  PhiUppi  Moimaei,  de  sacra  Eucharistia,  Libri  IV  ; 
Francf.  et  lianov.  1605.  Fol. — Claud.  Espencaei,  de 
Eucharistia  et  ejus  adoratione,  Libri  V;  Paris  1573.  8vo. 
'■ — Jac.  Dav.  du  Perron,  Traitd  du  saint  sacrament  de 
r  eucharistie  ;  Paris  1622.— Jo.  la  Placeite,  Traite  de 
r  autorile  des  sens  contre  la  transubstantiation ;  Amst. 
1700. — See  also  the  polemic  works,  mentioned  sec.  102, 
and  142, 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  195 

Sec.  201.  Dissension  among  Protestants,  during  Lu" 
therms  life. 
While  Luther  rejected  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  tran- 
substantiation,  he  believed,  that  the  real  presence  of  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ,  in  the  eucharist,  was  not  to  be 
given  'jp.  As  he  was  assailed  on  this  point,  by  Andreas 
Carlstadt ;  so  Zwingle  also  found  occasion,  first  in  a  pri- 
vate letter,  and  then  in  his  Commentarius  de  vera  et  falsa 
religione,  to  state  his  views;  which  were,  that  the  bread 
and  wine  are  symbols  of  Christ's  body.  John  Oecolam- 
padius  coincided  with  him,  except  in  one  unimportant 
particular ;  and  became  involved  in  controversy,  on  the 
subject,  with  some  Siiabian  preachers.  Soon  after,  Lu- 
ther and  Zwingle,  themselves  got  into  controversy  ;  which 
was  waged  with  considerable  warmth,  and  which  involved 
an  enquiry  into  the  omnipresence  of  Christ's  body.  The 
Landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse,  in  vain,  attempted  to  effect 
a  union  of  the  two  reformers,  by  means  of  the  Confer- 
ence of  Marpurg  A.  D.  1529.  In  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession, the"  real  presence  of  the  body  of  Clirist,  was  as- 
serted ;  dissent  was  disapproved  ;  and  the  cities  of  upper 
Germany,  which  believed  with  Zwingle,  were  excluded 
from  subscribing.  Yet,  at  length,  the  Wittenberg  Con- 
cord, of  1536,  was  concluded,  between  the  theologians 
of  upper  Germany  and  those  of  Saxony ;  and  so  much 
was  effected,  that  the  sacramental  contest  was,  for  along 
time,  at  rest.  It  was  indeed  renewed  by  Luther,  not 
long  before  his  death ;  but  the  other  Lutheran  divines 
took  no  part  in  it.  During  the  controversy  between  the 
Swiss  and  the  Saxon  reformers,  John  Caspar  Schwenck- 
feld  of  Ossingk,  deviated  from  the  tenets  of  the  latter. 

Notices.  Andr.  Carlstadt,  Exposition  oft  he  words  of  Christ : 
This  is  my  body  ;  (in  German.)  Basil  1525.  4 to. — Lu- 
ther, Ajrainst  the  heavenly  Propjiels  ;  (in  German,)  1525. 
4to. — Zicinglii,  Ep.  ad  Matth.  Alberum  ;  1524. — Ejusd. 
Commentarius  de  vera  et  falsa  religione  ;  Tiixmi  1525. — 
Ejusd.  Suhsidium  de  Eucharistia  ;  1525. — Jo.  Oecolam- 
padii,  De  genuina  verborum  Domini,  Hoc  est  corpus  xne- 


196 

urn,  juxta  vetustissimos  auctores  expositione  ;  (Basil 
1525  ) — Syngramma  clarissimorum,  qui  Halae  Suevorum 
convenenint,  virorum  super  verbis  coenae  Domini;  Halae 
Suevor.  1525.  4to. — Jo.  OecoZcrmpacZii,  A ntisyngram ma; 
1526.  8vo. — Luther^s  Sermon  on  the  sacrament  of  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ,  against  the  enthusiasts  ;  (in 
German,)  1522. — Zwlnglii  Amica  exegesis,  sen  exposi- 
tio  eucharistiae  negotii ;  1527. — Z/?^<^er'5,  That  the  words 
of  Christ ;  This  is  my  body  ;  still  stand  fast,  against  the 
enthusiastic  spirits  ;  (in  German,)  1527, — Zwingle's  Re- 
ply ;  That  the  words  :  This  is  my  body,  will  eternally 
have  their  ancient  and  only  meaning  ;  (in  German,)  1527. 
— Luther^ s  Confession  respecting  the  Lord's  Supper ; 
(in  German,)  1528,  &c. 
The  Auosburg  Confession,  Art.  X.  de  coena  Domini  do- 
cent,  quod  corpus  et  sanguis  Christi  vere  adsint  et  dis- 
tribuantur  vescentibus  in  coena  Domini,  et  improbant 
secus  docentes  (quod  cum  pane  et  vino  vere  exhibeantur 
corpus  et  sanguis  Christi  vescentibus  in  coena  Domini). 

Sec.  202.     Progress  of  the  controversy  after  Luther^s 
death. 

In  the  opinion  of  very  many  Protestant  divines,  at  the 
head  of  whom  was  Melanchthon,  the  question  in  debate, 
continually  sunk  in  importance. — John  Calvin  approxi- 
mated towards  the  Lutheran  tenet ;  by  allowing,  that 
there  was  a  participation  of  the  real  body  of  Christ,  in 
the  eucharist ;  though  not  with  the  lips,  yet  by  faith  ;  and 
he  gained  over  the  assent  of  the  divines  of  Zurich,  (A. 
D.  1549).  Yet  Joachim  Westphal  renewed  the  con- 
test; and  gradually,  others  took  part  in  it;  so  that  the 
bitterness  waxed  greater  and  greater.  Calvin's  opinion 
prevailed,  in  the  Palatinate ;  but  Melancthon's  school,  at 
Wittenberg,  which  more  and  more  openly  inclined  to 
Calvin's  views,  was  destroyed ;  and  thus  the  real  doctrine 
of  Luther,  was  set  forth  in  the  Formula  of  Concord,  in 
connexion  with  the  doctrine  of  the  ubiquity  of  Christ's 
body,  and  a  condemnation  of  Calvinism. 

Notices,    Consensio  mutua  in  re  sacramentaria  ministrorum 
Tigurinae  ecclesiae  et  Jo.  Calvini ;  in  Calvini  0pp.  T» 


OF    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  197 

VIII. — Petri  Martyris  Vermillii,  de  sacra mento  eucha- 
ristiae  in  schola  Oxoniensa  tiactatio  ;  Tiguri  1552. — Jo, 
,Westphal,  Farrago  confiisanearum  et  inter  se  dissidenti- 
um  opinionunf],  ex  Sacramentariorum  libris  congestaf 
Magd..  1552. — Ejusd,  Recta  fides  de  coena  Domini; 
1553. — Ejusd.  Collectanea  sententiarum  Augustini  de 
coena  Domini;  Ratisb.  1555. — Jo.  Calvini,  Defensio 
sanae  et  orthodoxae  doctrinae  de  sacramentis  ;  Genev. 
1555  &c. — Exegesis  perspicua  controversiae  de  coena 
Domini  ;  Wittenb.  1574. 

Sec.  203.  Later  history  of  this  doctrine. 
The  disagreement  of  the  two  Protestant  churches,  as  to 
this  doctrine,  continued  on  ;  and  was  generally  regarded, 
as  very  important ;  arid  the  contests  about  it,  were  kept 
up.  In  England,  Bp.  Benjamin  Hoadley  met  with  op- 
position, Decause  he  seemed  to  depreciate  the  importance 
of  the  Lord's  supper.  The  Lutheran  doctrine  was  re- 
peatedly attacked,  by  members  of  the  Lutheran  church: 
among  these,  the  posthumous  work  of  Heumann  excited  • 
most  notice,  and  called  forth  many  confutations.  Yet  the 
dexterity  with  which  Ernesti  defended  the  Lutheran 
views,  could  not  prevent  many  theologians,  of  his  church, 
from  either  abandoning  those  views,  altogether ;  or  so 
modifying  them,  as  to  desti*oy  their  essential  character ; 
nor  could  he  dissuade  all,  from  estimating  the  importance 
of  those  views,  far  lower.  The  Reformed  divines,  of 
late,  have  held  more  to  Zwingle's  ideas,  than  to  those  of 
Calvin.  Some  projects  for  union,  by  taking  a  middle 
course,  have  received  little  attention. 

Notices.  J.  Fr.  Buddaei^  Recentissimarum  de  coena  Do- 
mini controversiarum  sylloge  ; — in  his  Miscell.  Sacr.  T. 
II.  p.  61-88. — Benj.  Hoadley'' s  Plain  account  of  the  na- 
ture and  end  of  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper; 
Lond.  1735. — Chr.  Aug.  Heumann' s  Proof,  that  the 
doctrine  of  the  Reformed  church,  respecting  the  Lord's 
supper,  is  the  true  doctiine  ;  (in  Germ.)  Eisleben  and 
Wittenb.  1764.  8vo. — J.  Aug.  Erncsti,  Brevis  repetitio 
■  et  assertio  sententiae  Lutheranae  de  praesentia  corporis 
€t  sanquinis  J.  C.  in  coena  sacra  ;  Lips.  1766.  4to.  and 
18 


19i8  muenscher's  elements 

in  his  Opusc.  Theol. — Sketch  of  a  new  proof  of  the  inter- 
pretation, given  to  the  words  of  consecration  by  the  Lu- 
theran theologians;  (in  Germ.)  in  J.  G.  Toellners  Mis- 
cellaneous papers,  Collect.  II.  p.  173-256. — The  behef 
of  St.  Paul  respecting  the  Eucharist ;  (in  German — by 
Holzapfel,)  Francf.  1779 — [Ejusd.)  Confirmation  and 
elucidation  of  PauFs  belief  concerning  the  Eucharist ;  (in 
Germ.)  Francf.  1780. — J.  C.  Erhsiein,  Three  tracts  on 
the  Eucharist ;  (in  Germ.)  Berlin  1780. — Some  Theses 
on  the  doctrine  of  the  holy  supper;  (in  Germ.)  Berlin 
1781. — Remarks  and  elucidations  on  certain  theses  con- 
cerning thfe  holy  supper  ;  (in  Germ.)  by  J.  Balth.  Lii- 
derwaid ;  Ilelmst.  1783. — The  holy  supper  of  Christians  ; 
(in  Germ.)  by  Dr.  Henr.  Stephani ;  Lanshut  1811.  8vo. 
— (That  is  my  Paschal  body,  which  is  distiihuted  among 
you  ;  or  the  meat  of  the  covenant.  That  is  my  blood  of 
the  covenant,  which  I  pour  out  to  you  (sx^uvofj-svov). 

Sec.  204.     The  church. 
The  doctrine  concerning  the  church,  was  a  grand  sub- 
ject of  controversy,  between  the  Catholics  and  the  Pro- 
testants.    The  latter  rejected  the  positions,  that  there  is 
but  one  church  of  Christ ;  from  the  visible  communion  of 
which,  no  one  can  separate,  without  forfeiture  of  salvation; 
and  that  the  church  is  an  infallible  lawgiver,  and  judge,  in 
matters  of  faith  and  conduct;  and  that  even  the  belief  of 
Christianity,   must  .rest  on  the  authority  of  the  church. 
They  traced  the  distinction,  between  the  visible   church 
and  the  invisible  ;  and  conceded  to  the  former,  merely  the 
right,  to  regulate  the  forms  of  worship  and  to  execute 
church  discipline.     They  also  declared  Christ,  to  be  the 
only  sovereign  of  the  church ;  and  the  pretensions  of  the 
Bishops  of  Rome,  to  the  primacy,  to  be  mere  arrogance. 
And  even  in  the  Catholic  church,  there  was  disagree- 
ment, as  to  the  extent  of  the  Papal  power ;  and  two  op- 
posite systems  were  formed,  on  the  subject,  called  tlie 
ultramontane  and  the  episcopal.     The  latter  was,  espe- 
cially, defended  by  the  French  divines ;  was  propagated  in 
Germany,  by  Justin  Febronius;  and  in  later  times,  has 
gained  a  decided  ascendency. — Catholics  and  Protes- 


OF    DOGMATIC    kiSTORT.  199 

tants,  moreover,  have  unitedly  maintained,  agdnst  the  fa- 
natical sects,  that  perfect  purity,  in  its  members,  is  not 
the  sign  of  a  true  church ;  and  that  the  administration  of 
religious  ordinances,  does  not  lose  its  validity,  and  its  effi- 
cacy, when  performed  by  a  sinful  minister.  The  Kante- 
an  philosophy  led  to  a  philosophical  examination  of  the 
idea  of  a  church ;  and  some  Catholic  literati  have  at- 
tempted, by  means  of  it,  to  evince  the  infallibility  of  the 
church. 

JVotices.  De  potestate  et  primatn  Papae,  tractatus;  sub- 
joined to  the  Articles  of  Smalcald  ;  1537. — Jo.  Musaei, 
Tractatus  de  ecclesia  ;  Jenae  1671.  4to. — Edmundi  Ri- 
•cherii,  De  ecclesiastica  et  poUtica  potestate  ;  Col.  1701. 
4to. — Jo.  Launoii,  Epistolae  : — in  his  0pp.  ed.  Colon. 
1731.  V  Tomi,  Tomo  V. — Defensio  declarationis,  quam 
de  potestate  ecclesiastica  sanxit  Clerus  Gallicanus ;  1682. 
a  Jac.  Benig.  Bossuet ;  Luxernb.  1730.  4to. — Justini 
Febronii,  De  statu  ecclesiae  et  legitima  potestate  Pontifi- 
cis  Romani,  Liber  sins^ularis ;  BuilHoni  (Francf.)  1763- 
74.  IV  Tomi,  4to. — Ejusd.  Commentarius  in  suam  re- 
tractationem  ;  Francf.  ad.  Moen.  1781. — Petri  Balleri- 
ni,  De  vi  et  ratione  primatus  Roman.  Ponlificum,  Liber  ; 
Veronae  1776.  4to. — C.  F.  Stdudlin,  On  the  idea  of  a 
church,  and  church  history  ;  (in  German,)  in  the  Gotting. 
theol.  Biblioth.  vol.  L  p.  600. — A  Stapfer,  De  natura, 
conditore,  etincrementis  reipublicaeethicae  ;  Bern  1797. 
— Religion,  revelation,  and  a.  church,  investigated  by 
pure  reason;  (in  German,)  by  Ulr.  Peutinger ;  Salzb. 
1795.  8vo.- — Idea  biblica  ecclesiae  Dei ;  delineavit  Fr. 
Oberthiir,  vol.  I-IV.  1790-1817.  8vo.— J.  F.  Kleucker, 
de  J.  C.  Servatoris  hominum,  ecclesia  et  ecclesiisj  Kiliae 
1817.  4to. 

Sec.  205.  State  of  departed  souls. 
The  practical  misuses,  to  which  the  doctrine  of  purga- 
tory had  been  carried,  made  the  Reformers  too  decided, 
in  their  opposition  to  it;  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  coun- 
cil of  Trent  confirmed  it ;  together  with  that  of  the  effi- 
cacy of  prayers  for  the  dead ;  though  with  some  warn- 
ings against  fabulous  tales  and  avaricious  views.     To  the 


200 

idea,  of  the  insensibility  of  the  soul,  from  death  till  the 
resurrection,  Luther  appeared  to  be  not  opposed ;  but 
when  some  Anabaptists  brought  forward  that  idea,  it  was 
contested  by  John  Calvin;  and  it  was  rejected,  in  the 
English  Confession,  under  Edward  VI,  in  the  Swiss  Con- 
fession of  1566,  and  in  that  of  Scotland.  The  Protest- 
ants believed,  that  immediately  after  death,  the  soul  pass- 
es, either  into  heavenly  bliss,  or  into  the  torments  of  hell. 
Many  Socinians  were  of  opinion,  that  the  soul  does  not 
recover  its  consciousness,  and  its  activity,  till  its  reunion 
with  the  body;  and  various  others,  English  writers,  accord- 
ed with  this  sentiment.  "  The  learned  Henry  Dodwell, 
from  his  ideas  of  the  natural  mortality  of  the  soul,  of  the 
indispensable  necessity  of  Baptism,  and  of  the  exalted 
privileges  enjoyed  by  the  Episcopal  church,  composed  a 
very  singular  theory.  William  Coward  taught,  that  the 
soul  dies  with  the  body,  and  will  first  awake  along  with 
it.  Thomas  Burnet  revived  the  notion  of  the  ancient 
fathers,  concerning  a  middle  state  ;  where  the  righteous 
and  the  wicked  have  some  foretastes  of  their  future  con- 
ditions, until  the  general  judgment,  when  they  receive 
fully  their  punishments  and  rewards.  In  Germany,  the 
hypothesis  of  the  soul's  insensibility,  had  some  abettors ; 
and  even  the  transmigration  of  souls,  found  advocates  in 
G,  E.  Lessing  and  /.  G.  Schlosser  ;  who  were  able  to 
give,  a  refined  statement  of  the  doctrine. 

Notices,  An  liistorical  view  of  the  controversy  concerning 
an  intermediate  state,  and  the  separate  existence  of  the 
soul,  between  death  and  the  general  resurrection,  dedu- 
ced from  the  beginning  of  the  Protestant  reformation  to 
the  present  times  ;  (by  Blackburn^)  ed.  2.  Lond.  1772. 
8vo.- — J.  Fr.  Cotta,  Recentiores  quaedam  controversiae 
de  statu  animi  post  mortem  ;  Tub.  1758. — Jo.  Calvini, 
Psychopannychia  ;  Aureliae  1534. — William  Coward^ 
Second  thoughts  concerning  the  human  soul ;  demonstra- 
ting the  notion  of  the  human  soul,  as  believed  to  be  a 
spiritual  and  immortal  substance,  to  be  a  plain  heathenish 
invention;  Lond.  1702.-^De  statu  mortuorum  et  resur^ 
gentium   tractatus ;    auctore   Thoma  Burnet ;    Roterd, 


or    DOGMATIC    HISTORY.  201 

1729.  8vo. — (^Lud,  Ant,  Muratpri,  de  paradise  regnique 
coelestis  gloria,  rion  expectata  corporum  resurrectione, 
justisaDeo  collata;  ed.  2.  Venet.  1755.) — Gotth,  Ephr, 
Lessing's  Education  of  the  human  race  ;  (in  German,) 
1780.  8vo. — J.  G.  Sclilosser^s  Conversations  on  the 
transmigration  of  souls  ;  (in  German,)  Lips.  1781-82.  8vo. 

Sec.  206.  Resurrection  and  general  judgment. 
All  the  principal  christian  sects,  acknowledged  a  resur- 
rection, and  rejected  chiliasm.  Yet  this  last  doctrine 
had  many  friends;  among  whom  were  Amos  Comenius, 
Peter  Jurieu,  Thomas  Burnet,  William  Whiston,  and 
others.  Philip  James  Sjpener,  and  his  adherents,  taught 
a  refined  chiliasm ;  or  the  expectation  of  better  times. 
The  characteristics  of  the  resuscitated  bodies,  gave  oc- 
casion, for  many  investigations.  According  to  the  most 
common  opinion,  men  will  again  possess  the  same  bodies, 
or  at  least,  the  substance  of  the  same  bodies,  which  they 
had  in  this  life.  On  the  contrary,  the  Socinians,  Johnle 
Clerc,  aud  Godfrey  Less,  believed  in  the  formation  of 
entirely  new  bodies.  Joseph  Priestly  placed  the  resur- 
rection of  men,  immediately  after  their  death.*  Most  of 
the  modern  German  divines,  consider  the  resurrection,  a^; 
merely  a  figurative  representation ;  by  which  the  immorr- 
tality  of  the  soul,  is  so  pictured  forth,  as  to  be  intelligible 
to  persons  unaccustomed  to  reflection.  On  the  general 
judgment,  likewise,  many  questions  have  been  raised;, 
and  attempts  have  been  made,  to  ascertain  the  time  when 
it  will  take  place  ;  but  the  most  recent  theology  finds  in 
it,  only  the  drapery  of  the  doctrine,  that- God  will  render  to 
toth  good  and  bad  men,  a  perfect  recompense. 

Notices.  Henr.  Corodi,  Critical  history  of  Chiliasm  ;  (in 
German,)  vol.  III.  and  IV.  Zurich  1794.  The  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead,  according  to  the  instructions  of  the  New 
Testament.  An  extended  essay  ;  (in  German,)  by  Fred, 
des  Cotes ;  Kirchheim  Bolanden  1791.  The  palingene- 
sia  of  men,  according  to  reason  and  scripture;  (in  Germ.) 
hy  Ern.  Fred.  Ockel ;  Mietau  and  Konigsb.  1791.  4to.. 

*  No :  he  believed  the  soul  to  be  material ;   and  to  die  and  rise 
again,  with  tfea  body.     Translator. 


202  muenscher's  elements 

Sec.  207.  Salvation  and  damnation. 
The  various  speculations  concerning  the  place,  and  the 
condition,  of  the  blessed  and  the  damned,  scarcely  deserve 
to  be  desbribed.  Of  more  importance  is  the  inquiry,  re- 
specting the  duration  of  future  punishment;  on  which 
subject,  ail  the  variety  of  opinions,  that  existed  in  former 
times  among  christians,  still  .continued.  Yet  the  prevail- 
ing sentiment,  and  that  which  was  expressed  in  the  Augs- 
burg Confession,  and  in  other  Creeds,  was  in  favor  of  ^e 
eternity  of  future  punishment.  This  was  evinced,  not 
only  by  proofs  from  the  holy  scriptures,  but  also  on  rational 
grounds.  The  Socinians,  however,  held  to  a  punishment, 
which  would  terminate,  with  the  annihilation  of  the  dam- 
ned. Besides,  there  were  always  some,  who  advocated  a 
full  restitution,  of  all  men,  to  virtue  and  blessedness; 
.among  whom,  John  William  Petersen,  Thomas  Burnet, 
William  Whiston,  Maria  Huber,  and  Petitpierre,  were 
the  most  distinguished.  Many  theologians  have  begun, 
to  soften  down  the  common  representation.  John  Til- 
lotson  and  Godfrey  Less,  admitted,  that  God  had  threat- 
ened everlasting  punishment  to  the  wicked;  but  they 
doubted,  whether  he  would  execute  his  threatenings,  in 
their  full  extent.  James  Vernet  believed,  that  the  good- 
ness of  God,  in  remitting  punishment,  ought  not  to  be  cir- 
cumscribed. The  Woljian  philosophy  was,  at  first,  em- 
ployed to  evince  the  eternity  of  hell  torments ;  but  it  af- 
terwards, led  to  a  confutation  of  this  doctrine;  by  advancing 
the  principles,  that  the^w^^ice  of  God,  is  merely  \i\s  good- 
ness, directed  by  wisdom  ;  and  that  the  grand  object  of 
divine  punishments,  is  the  reformation  offenders.  And 
hence,  J,  A,  Eherhard,  B.  Basedow,  and  /.  F,  Gruner, 
held  forth  the  reformation  and  salvation  of  the  damned. 
Others,  have  either  left  the  question  wholly  undecided,  or 
have  referred  the  eternity,  mentioned  in  the  scripture , 
only  to  the  place  of  punishment ;  or  have  stopped  at  the 
never  ending  disadvantages,  which  the  neglect  of  repent- 
ance in  the  present  life,  will  bring  along  with  it  in  the  life 
to  come. 


OF  DOGMATIC  HISTORY.  203 

Notices,  (^William  Petersen,)  Mvg'ripiov  aflroxotra^atfsw^  tfav- 
<rwv,  i.  e.  the  mystery  of  the  restoration  of  all  things  ;  (in 
German,)  Offenbach  1701-10.  Ill  vol.  Fol.  Lewis  Ger- 
hard, Systema  a-roxara^ao'sw^,  i.  e.  the  complete  idea  of 
the  everlasting  gospel,  concerning  the  restoration  of  all 
things;  (in  German,)  1727.  4to.  The  eternity  of  hell 
torments,  inquired  into  and  considered  ;  by  T^.  Whiston; 
Lond.  1740.  8vo.  Les  systemes  des  Theologiens  an- 
ciens  et  modernes  concilies,  par  Texposition  des  differens 
sentiments  sur  Fetat  des  ames  separees  des  corps  ;  (par 
3Iar.  Huber,)  a  Lond  res  1729.  Three  Tracts  on  hell 
punishments,  with  a  short  account  of  what  happened  to 
M.  Petitpierre,  in  the  county  of  Neufchatel  ;  (in  Germ.) 
Francf.  and  Lips.  1763.  8vo. 

Joh.  L.  Mosheim,  Thoughts  on  the  doctrine  of  the  termina- 
tion of  hell  torments;  (in  German,)  Coburg  1728.  8vo. 
S.  I.  Baumgarten,  Vindiciae  poenarum  aeternarum  ; 
Halae  1742.  /.  B.  Schubert,  Rational  thoughts  on  the 
eternity  of  hell  torments  ;  (in  German,)  Jena  1753.  4to. 
(/.  R.  G,  Beyer,)  On  the  punishments  of  the  damned,  and 
their  duration  ;  (in  German,)  Lips.  1782. 


THE    END. 


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